Environmental ethics

1
Environmental ethics

• Environment everything around humans which is
  not strictly man-made (wild nature, fields,
  cities, ditches)
• Environmental ethics how one should treat
  natural entities what sort of relationship with
  nature humans should have moral standing of
  environmental entities
• Environmental philosophy what humans can know
  about environmental entities, what these entities
  can know themselves (are they rational like
  humans) modes of existing (e.g. ecosystems)

2
Ethics

• Descriptive ethics how humans actually behave/
  what issues they respect and appreciate
• Normative ethics
• Are there universal moral rules any good person
  should comply? How should a person to behave? How
  should environmental entities treated or be taken
  into account morally?
• Grounds for moral concern, examples
• Rationality
• Reciprocity
• Sentience
• Duty
• Virtue
• Utility

3
Value dichotomies theoretical disputes in
environmental ethics

• Intrinsic instrumental value
• Moral status of environment in relation to
  humans if intrinsic, environmental entities are
  respected as themselves and may even have rights
• Anthropocentrism ecocentrism
• Is environment valued only for its worth for
  humans or are natural entities valued as such?

4
Dichotomies

• Individualism holism
• Is it an individual or society / species which is
  prioritised?
• Conservation of species versus well-being of an
  individual animal? E.g. zoos
• Moral monism moral pluralism
• Universal principles versus particular, pragmatic
  rules for new situations
• E.g. is the Kantian principle applicable to all
  situations?
• Categorical imperative Treat persons always as
  ends themselves.

5
Criticism of traditional ethical theories

• Only individuals have a moral standing
• Ecosystems or processes in nature are excluded
• Animals have only instrumental value
• Rights-based theories
• Rights entitle one to make justified claims, but
  who are obliged to fulfil these rights, e.g., in
  the case of animals?
• Trad. environmental theories only important
  parts of natural system has a moral standing,
  like mountains and animals. Excludes often
  ditches, parks, lower insects as secondary

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Environmental ethical theories

• 1. Conservationism
• Ethics of wise use
• environment resource for human action
• Instirumental value, efficiency
• Gifford Pinchot (1865-1946)
• 2. Preservationism
• Nature is preserved untouched by humans
• Wild nature as intrinsic, but not all natural
  entities are valued equally
• Henry D. Thoreau (1817-1862) Walden, The Main
  Woods, Cape Cod
• John Muir (1838-1914) Our National Parks (1909)
• 3. Moral extensionism
• Moral evaluation and ethical theories are simply
  extended to non-human animals and natural
  entities animal rights
• Singer, Routley, Callicott
• Individuals have intirinsic value

7
Environmental ethical theories

• 4. Biocentrism
• Life as the criterion of value respect for all
  forms of life
• Albert Scweitzer (1875-1965)The Philosophy of
  Civilization (1949) all life forms have equal
  value
• K. Goodpaster different life forms have
  different value (moral meaningfulness)
• 5. Ecocentrism
• All ecological entities, systems and processes
  are to be preserved
• Human life is valued an the basis of its relevant
  contribution to the integrity of biosphere
  humans are members of the society called Earth
• Biotic equality all entities including
  inorganic nature have intrinsic value
• extreme preservationist view
• Aldo Leopold (1887-1948) A Sand County Almanac
  (1949) ? Land-ethic
• Arne Naess deep ecology (Ecology, Community and
  Lifestyle 1989)
• James Lovelock Lynn Margulis A New Look at
  Life on Earth" 1979

8
Challenges of environmental evaluation

• In evaluating environmental consequences of an
  action we must take into account
• humans
• non-human animals
• holistic entities like ecosystems and species
• future (human and non-human) generations
• Environmental harm as cumulative result by
  multiple actors during a long period of time
• Probabilities, risks
• Action causing environmental harm is often useful
  in other ways e.g. employment, economical
  well-being

9
Some philosophical dilemmas

• If all animals are of same value as humans, why
  only humans are required to behave morally
  responsibly?
• What does it mean to take ethically into
  consideration? What does moral standing actually
  mean?
• Is an experience by an animal ever understandable
  to humans? How do we translate an experience of
  an animal into human experience?
• If holistic entities are intrinsically valuable,
  how do we take into account individuals of that
  whole?
• No ought from is prevalent state of matters
  does not tell anything about normative claims in
  the situation. It still remains to be analysed,
  how to act and who is responsible.

10
Summing up environmental ethics

• A moral actor /agent
• Can other entities than humans be considered as
  morally responsible? E.g., compare with
  punishment.
• Anthropogenic theory of value?
• Moral action
• Intentionally and knowingly caused consequences?
• Object in focus
• A human or an animal? A whole or an individual?
  Existing or future-to-be?
• Moral considerability (K. Goodpaster, 1978)
• Justification
• Consequences, sentience, utility, virtue, duty,
  or contracts?
• E.g., whose utility? Consequences on whom?