General English Mahmoud Alimohammadi Hassan Khalili

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General English Mahmoud Alimohammadi Hassan Khalili

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Title: General English Mahmoud Alimohammadi Hassan Khalili

1

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This volume is designed on the basis of the
demands of university students for reading
English textbooks in their relevant fields of
study.

The reading selections not only acquaint you with
a variety of reading skills but also improve your
study skills.

The purpose of the book is to enhance your
reading comprehension ability by increasing your
vocabulary, improving your reading comprehension,

and knowledge of grammatical points, and by
helping you learn the skills involved in using
context clues.

The general aim and behavioral objectives are
listed at the beginning of each unit to draw your
attention to the main points and activities on
which you are expected to concentrate.

Study Guide
In each unit of this book, there is a reading
passage which functions as the core around which
the unit is structured.

The material within the passage is used for
contextualizing the vocabulary and designing the
various exercises and activities that improve
reading comprehension.

Word Definitions and Exemplifications
The key words of the passage presented in each
unit are defined and exemplified.

Reading Passage
Each unit comprises a reading selection which
functions as its main part. The exercises
preceding and following the passage are somehow
related to it.

Word Formation Exercises -3 and -4
These exercises familiarize you with prefixes and
suffixes

Word Formation Chart
This chart is presented in each unit and includes
different forms of the words in the reading
passage.

Comprehension Exercises -6, -7, -8, and 9
The exercises will help you find the references
of some of the pronouns in the passage, improve
your ability in guessing the meaning of idioms
and words from the context,

and check your reading comprehension through
True-False and Multiple Choice questions.

Structure Review
The dominant or complex structural patterns of
each unit are briefly discussed in this part.

Appendix I Answer Key
You can find the answers to all questions of each
unit in this part.

Appendix II Index of Prefixes, Roots and
Suffixes
The list of common prefixes, roots and suffixes
as well as the comprehensive lists of English
prefixes and suffixes are presented in this part.

Appendix III Word List
The English-Persian Word List includes all the
important words and phrases used in the book.

Unit 1
Word Elements Prefixes, Roots and Suffixes
General Aims
This unit is designed to help you learn a number
of words and the skills involved in using context
clues, and to promote your reading comprehension

Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this unit, you are
expected to
1. Define the meaning of the words presented
at the beginning of this unit, and do Exercises
1-1 and 1-2.

2. Do Word Formation Exercises 1-3 and 1-4.
3. Do Word Formation Chart Exercise 1-5.
4. Do Comprehension Exercises 1-6, 1-7, 1-8
and 1-9.
5. Do Structure Review Exercise 1-10.

Unit 1 Summay
Word Elements Prefixes, Roots and Suffixes
There are three kinds of word elements prefixes,
roots, and suffixes
A prefix is a group of letters that attaches to
the beginning of a word root.

A root is the central, or main portion of a word.
A suffix is a group of letters that attaches to
the end of a word root.

Example impolitely
im- is the prefix,
polite is the root,
im- means not.
impolite means not polite.
and ly is the suffix.

co- (together) exist coexist (to exist
together)
co- (together) operate cooperate (to work or
operate together)

Types of roots base words and combining roots
A base word is simply an English word that can
stand alone, such as polite or operate, and may
be joined to a prefix or a suffix.

Combining roots cannot stand alone as English
words they are derived from words in other
languages.
Example ject is derived from the Latin word
jacere, which means to throw.

Ject combines with many prefixes to form new
words.
Examples reject and eject
e- (out) ject (throw) eject
re- (back) ject ( throw) reject

Prefixes and roots often give an image of a word
rather than a precise definition.
This image can help you to remember the meaning
of a word.

Most suffixes change a word from one part of
speech to another.
Example
Impolite is an adjective but impolitely is an
adverb.

Suffixes may also indicate a plural or a past
tense
Examples boys, reached
A few suffixes extend the basic meaning of a
word root.

Example
The root, psych (mind), and the suffix logy
(study of) are joined to form psychology (the
study of the mind).

Using Word Elements
Word elements provide valuable clues to the
meanings of unknown words, but they must be used
carefully.

Some word elements have more than one spelling.
Example the root ject is occasionally spelled
jac.
The prefix anti- is also spelled ant- (as in
antacid and antagonist).

Some word elements have more than one meaning.
Example, the combining root gen can mean both
birth and type( as in generate or generic)

If you combine your knowledge of word elements
with context clues, you can usually determine the
most appropriate meaning.

Finally, when you see a certain combination of
letters in a word, those letters may not always
form a word element.
1. The antihero is a villain.
2. We anticipate you will come.

The use of word elements is an excellent way to
increase your vocabulary.
Prefixes, roots, and suffixes can help you unlock
the meanings of thousands of difficult words.

Structure Review
Look at these sentences
a. A prefix is a group of letters. The
group of letters attaches to the beginning of a
word root.
b. A prefix is a group of letters that
attaches to the beginning of a word root.

You can combine the two sentences in a to form
a new sentence like b by an adjective clause.

In b, that attaches to the beginning of a word
root is an adjective clause used as an
adjective, because it describes the noun phrase
a group of letters.

Unit 2Word Power and a
World Power
General Aims
This unit is designed to help you learn a number
of words and the skills involved in using context
clues, and to promote your reading comprehension

Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this unit, you are
expected to
1. Define the meaning of the words
presented at the beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 2-1 and 2-2.

2. Do Word Formation Exercises 2-3 and 2-4.
3. Do Word Formation Chart Exercise 2-5.
4. Do Comprehension Exercises 2-6, 2-7, 2-8
and 2-9.
5. Do Structure Review Exercise 2-10.

Unit 2 Summary
Word Power and a World Power
English is the worlds most important language
today.
English is the most frequently taught second
language in the world.

It is spoken over a vast area North America,
Europe, Asia, Africa, and elsewhere.
It is the official language of many nations.

English has an enormous vocabulary.
Websters Third New International Dictionary
contains 460,000
No other language comes close to English in a
count of general vocabulary.

Size of vocabulary
German dictionary under 200,000 words.
French dictionary about 150,000 words,
Russian dictionary maybe 130,000.

Advantages of enormous vocabulary
A language can make the process easier or harder
by providing or not providing appropriate words.

English speakers have a head start over speakers
of other languages in being able to express
themselves clearly and concisely.

speakers with a good command of vocabulary can
say things in more subtly different ways than
others can.
The expressive power of language is enormous.

Disadvantages of enormous vocabulary
We have to use a dictionary frequently to look up
the words we dont know.

The ever increaing richness of English places a
burden on us when we first learn words and their
meanings.

English is extraordinarily well endowed with
words.
It is a versatile language.
The supply of words is ever on the rise.

Structure Review
Look at these sentences
a. English is the tongue of people.
b. English is the mother tongue of several
hundred million people.

c. English is a language.
d. English is the most frequently taught second
language.

a and c are simple sentences that lack color,
interest and detail.
b and d are expanded with modifiers and give
more specific information.

In b, the noun people is modified by three
adjectives several, hundred and million.
In d, the noun language is modified by the
most frequently taught second.

In this phrase, frequently is an adverb which
modifies the participle taught which, in turn,
is used as a modifier to modify the noun
language.

Nouns may also be used to modify other nouns. In
b, mother modifies tongue.

In brief, nouns may be modified by adjectives,
other nouns and participles (the -ed, -en and
-ing forms of verbs).
Adjectives also may be modified by adverbs.

Unit 3
Why and How Do We Read? (1)
General Aims
This unit is designed to help you learn a number
of words and the skills involved in using context
clues, and to promote your reading comprehension.

Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this unit, you are
expected to
1. Define the meaning of the words
presented at the beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 3-1 and 3-2.

2. Do Word Formation Exercises 3-3 and 3-4.
3. Do Word Formation Chart Exercise 3-5.
4. Do Comprehension Exercises 3-6, 3-7, 3-8
and 3-9.
5. Do Structure Review Exercise 3-10

65
Unit 3 Summary Why and How Do We Read? (1)

Reading for pleasure
Some people pursue leisure reading seriously to
improve themselves, to widen their knowledge or
skills.

Example
People buy daily newspapers, magazines and
journals to keep themselves informed and
up-to-date on topical issues.

We also indulge in leisure reading for the sheer
pleasure of reading or for relaxation.
In this case our reading habits are sporadic

Reading for study
When we read for study, we read because we have
to read.
In this case we know that our understanding of
the message will be tested.

We therefore set aside time for it.
We prepare ourselves physically, mentally and
emotionally for it
and we create an environment around ourselves
that is conducive to reading.

Reading for gist
We read the whole text but only to gain a general
idea of it.
You can only follow a presentation in a seminar
if you already know the gist of the paper.

Reading for specific information
When we are looking for specific information in a
book, a chapter or a passage, it saves time to
skim over those sections, chapters or paragraphs
that are not relevant.

Reading for close understanding
Your intention is to learn as much as you can
about either a subject or a topic.

Reading for a close understanding can come about
as a result of study assignments, after-lecture
reading or studying for examinations.

Therefore, we have to read and understand any
material that has been touched on by the tutor.

Structure Review
Look at these sentences
1.a. We read.
b. We read because we enjoy reading.
2.a. We read.
b. We read when we have the time during a
lunch break

3.a. It does not matter.
b. It does not matter if we understand the
whole passage.
An adverb clause is used as an adverb to modify
a verb.

An adverb clause may begin with because, when,
before, whether, unless, etc.
There are some adverb clauses that indicate
contrast.
Such clauses begin with although, while and soon.

Examples 1a, 2a and 3a are simple
sentences.
In 1b, because we enjoy reading is an adverb
clause that answers the question why about the
verb read.

In 2b, the adverb clause is when we have the
time during a lunch break. This clause specifies
the time of the verb read.

In 3b, if we understand the whole passage is
an adverb clause that refers to the condition of
the verb matter.

There are other forms of adverb clauses that are
classified on the basis of the type of
relationship they express.

Remember that you can put an adverb clause in
front of, within, or after the independent
clause.

Unit 4Why and How Do We Read? (2)
General Aims
This unit is designed to help you learn a number
of words and the skills involved in using context
clues, and to promote your reading comprehension.

Behavorial Objectives
After carefully reading this unit, you are
expected to
1. Define the meaning of the words presented at
the beginning of this unit, and do Exercises 4-1
and 4-2.
2. Do Word Formation Exercises 4-3 and 4-4.

3. Do Word Formation Chart Exercise 4-5.
4. Do Comprehension Exercises 4-6, 4-7, 4-8
and 4-9.
5. Do Structure Review Exercise 4-10.

Unit 5 Summary
Why and How Do We Read? (2)
Inferring
This sounds rather like guessing what the text
says but the reason we can do it is that we can
base our guesses on good information from
elsewhere in the text.

Rather than use guessing to describe what we are
doing when we read, we say we are inferring.

To infer is to reach an opinion either from facts
or through reasoning.
Somebody can say something that you, by
inference or deduction, can interpret.

When reading, you can infer meanings from context
even when you do not know the meaning of some of
the words.
This is determined by the surrounding words and
general context.

Inferring the meaning of unknown words
We can infer the meaning of a word from the
context within which it is used.

The meaning of a word is determined by a set of
circumstances that surround it and differentiate
its meaning from any other word.

Example
For example, look at the following two
sentences
1. He affects an air of superiority.
2. Loud noise affects our concentration

In the first sentence, affects means puts on
because of the context of superiority.
In the second sentence, affects means interferes
with because of the context of the word
concentration.

Predicting messages
From what we already know of a texts content and
meaning we can predict more about what the writer
will go on to say.

To predict is to guess what is going to happen or
what the writer is going to say.
In our reading we can predict what the writer is
going to say because

We are familiar, through past experience, with
the ideas being expressed
b. the writer has used words and phrases whose
uses we are familiar with.

Example
Prevention is better than ?????(cure).
Predicting a message depends both on our
familiarity with the language and on our prior
knowledge of the topic.

Skipping
As we read we skip many words, yet we still
understand the message.
This is particularly so when we are reading for
pleasure.

Take for example, the following sentence
When one area becomes inhospitable, the birds
migrate to more propitious environments.

100

If you only know inhospitable, birds and migrate,
then you can guess from the context that
propitious describes a situation opposite to
inhospitable or hospitable.

101

In reading you can save yourself time by skipping
less important words and still get the message.

102

However, do not skip the key unfamiliar words.
If this happens, then you should use a
dictionary.

103

Structure Review
Look at these sentences
Simple Present
Mary uses a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary is used (by Mary). (Passive Voice)

104

Simple Past
Mary used a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary was used (by Mary). (Passive Voice)

105

Present Continuous
Mary is using a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary is being used (by Mary). (Passive
Voice)

106

Mary was using a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary was being used (by Mary). (Passive
Voice)

107

Future
Mary will use a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary will be used (by Mary). (Passive
Voice)

108

Present Perfect
Mary has used a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary has been used (by Mary). (Passive
Voice)

109

Past Perfect
Mary had used a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary had been used (by Mary). (Passive
Voice)

110

Present Infinitive
Mary has to use a dictionary. (Active Voice)
A dictionary has to be used (by Mary). (Passive
Voice)

111

In an active voice sentence, the doer of the
action (verb) is emphasized.
But in a passive voice sentence, the action
(verb) is emphasized.

112

The passive is formed in one of the following
ways
be past participle
auxiliary be past participle

113

Notice that the form of be for the continuous
tenses is being
for the future tenses and for the present
infinitive, be
and for the perfect tenses, been.

114

The subject of a passive sentence is actually the
object of its counterpart active sentence.

115

The actual subject of an active sentence is
placed after the verb in by phrase, or is
omitted from the sentence.

116

Passive sentences are used when the doer of the
action is
obvious,
unknown,
unimportant or
less important than the action (verb).

117

Remember that passive sentences often sound
impersonal and objective, and are frequently used
in textbooks.

118

Unit 5
Using the Dictionary
General Aims
This unit is designed to help you learn a number
of words and the skills involved in using context
clues, and to promote your reading comprehension

119

Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this unit, you are
expected to
1. Define the meaning of the words
presented at the beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 5-1 and 5-2.
2. Do Word Formation Exercises 5-3 and 5-4.

120

3. Do Word Formation Chart Exercise 5-5.
4. Do Comprehension Exercises 5-6, 5-7, 5-8 and
5-9.
5. Do Structure Review Exercise 5-10.

121

Unit 5 Summary
Using the Dictionary
There are many different types of dictionaries.
The smallest is the pocket or abridged
dictionary, usually a paperback, which gives
short definitions.

122

The most complete kind is the unabridged
dictionary.
Between these two sizes is the college-level
dictionary, which includes enough detail for most
college students.

123

Learning to use this important tool takes
practice.

124

A skillful dictionary user can find not only the
meaning of a word but also its pronunciation, its
history, and other words related to it.

125

A standard dictionary entry contains the
following parts
1. The word
The entry word is printed in boldface type and
divided into syllables.

126

2. The pronunciation
A key at the bottom of each page of a dictionary
shows you how to interpret the pronunciation
symbols.

127

This key gives a common word that contains the
sound represented by that symbol

128

For example, the symbol a (which represents the
first sound in amicable) should be spoken like
the sound of a in the word pat.

129

An accent mark (?) follows the syllable that
should be stressed when you pronounce a word.
In amicable, only the first syllable is
stressed.

130

If two syllables have accent marks, the syllable
with the darker accent mark receives more stress.

131

3. The part of speech
The parts of speech you will most often encounter
are commonly abbreviated as follows
n. ? noun tr. v. ? transitive verb
adj. ? adjective intr. v. ? intransitive verb
adv. ? adverb

132

4. The definition
Choosing the best definition is often a very
difficult task.
Be sure to read all of the definitions before you
select one.

133

Ordering definitions.
In the American Heritage Dictionary, Third
College Edition, the most general definition of a
word is given first, and the least general is
given last.

134

In Websters Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary,
the oldest definition of a word appears first,
and the newest definition last.

135

In the Random House College Dictionary,
definitions are ordered from the most commonly
used to the least commonly used.

136

Dictionary definitions usually state only the
precise, or denotative, meanings of words.
But words also have implied, or connotative,
meanings.

137

Example
Skinny and slender have the same denotative
meaning, thin.
But they differ in connotative meaning.

138

Skinny has negative associations, or
connotations, and is an uncomplimentary word
slender has positive connotations and is a
complimentary word.

139

Dictionaries give some hints about connotative
meanings.
5. The etymology
In this section, the history of a word is traced
to its origin.
The word amicable comes to us in its present form
from Middle English.

140

Before this, the word appeared in Late Latin as
amicabilis, which can be followed back still
further to the Latin word amicus, meaning
friend.

141

6. Related words
Related words usually differ from the entry word
because they contain suffixes, or word endings.

142

For instance, under the main entry amicable (an
adjective), two nouns (amicability, amicableness)
and an adverb (amicably) are also listed.

143

Structure Review
Look at these sentences
1.a. The word contains the sound that is
represented
Adjective Clause
by the symbol.
b. The word contains the sound represented by
the
Reduced Phrase
symbol.

144

2.a. These are the parts of speech that you
Adjective Clause
will encounter.
b. These are the parts of speech you will
encounter.

145

In sentence 1a., the relative pronoun that is
the subject of the adjective clause.
In sentence 1b, the full adjective clause is
reduced to a phrase.
In 1b, that and is are omitted.

146

In sentence 2a, the relative pronoun that is
used as the direct object of the adjective
clause.
However, in sentence 2b, that has been left
out.

147

Remember that you can reduce such adjective
clauses without changing their meanings.

148

Unit 6Using Reference Books and Libraries
General Aims
This unit is designed to help you learn a number
of words and the skills involved in using context
clues, and to promote your reading comprehension.

149

Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this unit, you are
expected to
1. Define the meaning of the words
presented at the beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 6-1 and 6-2.
2. Do Word Formation Exercises 6-3 and 6-4.

150

3. Do Word Formation Chart Exercise 6-5.
4. Do Comprehension Exercises 6-6, 6-7, 6-8 and
6-9.
5. Do Structure Review Exercise 6-10.

151

Unit 6 Summary
Using Reference Books and Libraries
Using your dictionary
If you do not know the meaning of a key word or
content word and cannot guess it from the context
within which it is used, it would be a very grave
mistake to skip it.

152

Most dictionaries give
the word,
its meaning or
meanings,
spelling and
pronunciation.

153

Some words have more than one meaning and it is
important to know exactly what meaning you are
looking for.

154

Example
voice described as
the sound, made in the throat, that humans use
for speaking and singing,
the quality or power of this a good singing
voice a quiet voice

155

All entries in dictionaries are arranged
alphabetically or according to their spelling.

156

You should equip yourself with a dictionary which
will give you most of the words that you require
and a variety of definitions for each word.

157

Rogets Thesaurus brings together words with
similar meanings through a classification under
the same heading.
Suppose we wanted one word for lessening pain.

158

If we turn to the section dealing with pain we
might find the word we want.
Rogets Thesaurus gives only a variety of words
in the same semantic field.

159

Selecting reading for pleasure
For leisure reading we select subjects or topics
that interest us.

160

Language level and suitability
In selecting our reading materials we should
choose those whose language level is at or
slightly higher than our own level of competence.

161

Reading materials for study
When you enroll for a course you are given a
Reading List.
This is graded into essential reading,
recommended reading and optional reading.

162

All institutions of learning, from primary
schools to post secondary institutions, should
have a library.
In educational institutions the libraries are
both lending and reference.

163

Books in a library are catalogued both by subject
and by author.
Each title is written out on a card that includes
title, author, publisher, date of publication and
catalogue number.

164

From the card you will obtain the authors name,
the title of the book you want and the catalogue
number.

165

If you know the subject and the author of the
book then you look in the author catalogue under
the relevant subject section and obtain the
catalogue number and hence the book.

166

The most important information you need when you
go to the library is the catalogue number of the
book that you require.

167

Structure Review
Look at these sentences
1. a. If we know one word but think that there
is a better one still, we can look it up and will
find a whole set of associated words.

168

b. If you want the meaning of a word, you have
to turn to a dictionary.

169

c. If, however, after borrowing the book you find
the language level much higher than your
expectations, you will not enjoy reading it.

170

1. If we were to look up a new word, we would
find some definitions for it.

171

In sentences 1a, b, and c there is a real
possibility.
So we say If we know ., we will (can,
may, must, have to, ought to, ) find .

172

In sentence 2, we are imagining the situation.
So we say If we were .., we would .. .

173

When we imagine a situation,
we use if past (if I were / If I knew / If he
didnt, etc.).
In this case the meaning is present, not past.

174

Some other examples are as follows
John would read more if he had more time. (But he
doesnt have much time.)
We wouldnt have any money if we didnt work.
(But we work.)

175

Unit 7
Learning
General Aims
This unit is designed to help you learn a number
of words and the skills involved in using context
clues, and to promote your reading comprehension.

176

Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this unit, you are
expected to
1. Define the meaning of the words
presented at the beginning of this unit, and do
Exercises 7-1 and 7-2.
2. Do Word Formation Exercises 7-3 and 7-4.

177

3. Do Word Formation Chart Exercise 7-5.
4. Do Comprehension Exercises 7-6, 7-7, 7-8 and
7-9.
5. Do Structure Review Exercise 7-10.

178

Unit 7 summary
Learning
Thinking about learning
Learning is time-consuming, needing proper
experience through extensive reading, practice,
and discussion with others.

179

cultivate interest in your studies through
learning to deal fully with the new experiences
as you gain deeper insights into your various
subjects.

180

Learning and retaining
Whatever is learned has to be stored or retained
in your mind until it is required or its
recollection is triggered by a similar
experience.

181

Learning, retaining and remembering form a
continuum in the process of studying.

182

Revising and thinking
Thinking is aimed at finding new information and
solving new problems.
Improving your powers of thinking can be done
through practice,

183

through wider reading, and skilful ordering of
the information learned, and linking past
knowledge to new situations.

184

Evidence of your having understood takes for
granted that you can retain the information long
enough to recall it should occasion, such as an
examination, demand.

185

Ways to maximize learning
Identification of study material
Unless you are sure of what you are required
to learn you are likely to waste time learning
unnecessary material.

186

In learning and studying you aim at acquiring
specific knowledge or skill for a specific
purpose (e.g. to pass an examination)

187

In the case of learning for a specific purpose it
is important therefore, to know precisely what
you are required to know.

188

Motivation
Motivation to learn is important.
You have to be prepared to make an effort to
learn what is assigned.

189

Examinations usually provide strong motivation to
learn the assigned material, keeping in mind its
importance and relevance to your college or
university career.

190

Study intervals
The effectiveness of your studying is governed by
your concentration span.
This refers to the period of time you can
concentrate on a problem or study before the mind
begins to wander.

191

Study in short intensive spurts, taking breaks in
between to enable your mind to rest and reinforce
itself for the next spurt.

192

Many short periods of intensive learning are
better than one long period.
Learn the material over and over again in quick
successive repetitions.

193

Go over it constantly in order to allow your
learning process to strengthen the impression
made of the material on your mind.

194

This enables your mind to retain and recall what
you have learned for long periods afterwards.

195

With practice you gain confidence and experience
in handling the material to be learned.
Recite the study materials without referring to
it while you are summarizing the material to be
learned.

196

New material will disrupt old facts.
Trying to learn two different items at the same
time can result in confusion.
Try to learn one fully, then differentiate the
first from the second.

197

Cover all the syllabus
Study thoroughly all the required examination
material.
Be sure from the very beginning why you are
studying the material to enable your memory to
program itself.

198

There is little positive result in having a
negative view of material you do not like and yet
the examination syllabus demands that it be
studied.

199

Use accurate sources
Avoid sources of errors in learning by
programming your memory to be as observant,
objective, thorough and accurate as possible.

200

In this case it helps to pick up as much
information as you can on your required
examination reading.

201

and gradually eliminate material that appears
inaccurate in view of standard or acceptable
sources.

202

Structure Review
Look at the following sentences
1. Learning is time-consuming.
2. Thinking is aimed at finding new information
and solving new problems.

203

3. Trying to learn two different items at the
same time can result in confusion.
4. Improving your powers of thinking can be done
through practice.

204

A gerund is a noun that is derived from a verb.
A verb can be turned into a gerund by adding
(-ing) to its simple form.

205

In sentences 1 and 2, the words learning and
thinking are gerunds.
Gerunds function as nouns in sentences.
A gerund may take an object, a complement, and
other modifiers

206

In sentences 3 and 4, trying to learn two
different items at the same time and improving
your powers of thinking are gerund phrases.

207

Unit 8
Remembering What YouHave Learned
General Aims
This unit is designed to help you learn a number
of words and the skills involved in using context
clues, and to promote your reading comprehension.

208

Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this unit, you are
expected to
1. Define the meaning of the words presented at
the beginning of this unit, and do Exercises 8-1
and 8-2.
2. Do Word Formation Exercises 8-3 and 8-4.

209

3 . Do Word Formation Chart Exercise 8-5.
4.. Do Comprehension Exercises 8-6, 8-7, 8-8 and
8-9.
5. Do Structure Review Exercise 8-10.

210

Unit 8 Summary
Remembering What You Have Learned
Remembering is closely linked to understanding
Learning by rote is not what we are talking about
when we are discussing remembering.

211

Memorizing
Below is a simple statement of fact
Language policy has been one of the most
difficult aspects of national development in
Africa.

212

In memorizing we can take the statement at face
value .
We need not go any further if all we are
interested in is the memorization of facts.

213

However, examinations have purposes other than
just testing our mastery of facts in a particular
subject.

214

For example, exams help to select individuals for
positions in society and
measure powers of critical thinking and
application of knowledge and skills to different
situations.

215

Understanding
This is the most effective method of studying.
It involves reading behind the words to obtain
meanings, concepts, principles, reasons, etc.

216

There are cases, however, where memorization is a
useful way of studying.
This is particularly so for
scientific formulae,
poetry and
some passages in literature

217

Memory can be short- or long-term.
Short-term memory is where once you have
experienced or learned something you remember it
for a short time but later you cannot remember
it.

218

Long-term memory is where once you have learned
something for an adequate length of time, the
idea or picture can be recalled with relative
ease much later.

219

An example involving long-term recall is your
address.
For long-term memory sufficient time is needed
for your mind to register and integrate the data
without being rushed.

220

If adequate time is given for the material to
sink in then the retention span is greatly
increased.
This means that effective memorizing requires
sufficient time for practice and rehearsal.

221

Types of memory
There are three known types of memories, visual,
audio and kinetic.
In studying one should utilize all of them but
give emphasis to ones strong memory points.

222

Some people have stronger visual memories, i.e.
they tend to photograph and remember what they
learn because they can see it in their minds.

223

Others have auditory memories and can remember
better what they hear.

224

The third category of people have kinetic
memories and will remember better by writing out
what they have read or heard.
One should use all three but exploit the
strongest.

225

Finally, graphs, charts, formulae, dates and laws
are best learned and memorized word for word with
deliberate attempts to remember their visual or
mental pictures using flashcards.

226

Mnemonic study techniques
Mnemonic techniques of study are memory aid
devices to help you recall significant
information.

227

They fall into two categories.
The first category involves breaking down
information into major points under which you put
subsidiary points.

228

This is called the headline approach because the
major points are headlined with the relevant
subsidiary points coming under each headline.

229

Mnemonics are of use also in dealing with lists
of unrelated items in order to create a bond or
link between them.

230

This can be done by building up mental images,
using key letters to form words or phrases,
associating single words with the facts in
question,

231

associating facts with stories, sentences,
rhymes and rhythms.
Examples
The excretory system of the body skin, kidneys,
intestines, liver and lungs.
Here the mnemonic device could be the word
SKILL.

232

You can acquire the skill of studying by better
mastery of the studying techniques, i.e.
learning, retaining and remembering.

233

Structure Review
Look at the following sentences
1. Remembering is closely linked to
understanding.
2. Effective memorizing requires sufficient
time for practice and rehearsal.

234

3. Understanding involves reading behind the
words.
4. Remembering can be helped by managing your
time properly.

235

A gerund or gerund phrase can be used as the
subject, direct object, or object of preposition
in a sentence.
Remembering and effective memorizing in
sentences 1 and 2 are the subjects of the
sentences.

236

Reading behind the words in sentence 3 is the
direct object and managing your time properly
in sentence 4 is the object of preposition by

237

Unit 9Applying Your Knowledge
General Aims
This unit is designed to help you learn a number
of words and the skills involved in using context
clues, and to promote your reading comprehension.

238

Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this unit, you are
expected to
1. Define the meaning of the words presented at
the beginning of this unit, and do Exercises 9-1
and 9-2.
2. Do Word Formation Exercises 9-3 and 9-4.

239

3.. Do Word Formation Chart Exercise 9-5.
4.. Do Comprehension Exercises 9-6, 9-7, 9-8
and 9-9.
5. Do Structure Review Exercise 9-10.

240

Applying Your Knowledge
Apply any theory you learn in your various
subjects or courses.
Applying, testing and drawing up hypotheses of
any theories learned involves questioning,
problem-solving, integrating and creating.

241

Questioning
Questioning calls upon you to ask questions about
the material covered to satisfy yourself of the
veracity of the messages you receive.

242

Questioning enables you to get more information
than you get from the initial message.
For example few lectures or even books provide
all the information on any one subject.

243

In order to raise relevant questions you must
identify important or crucial points in the
content of the messages received.

244

Ordering and categorizing the levels of
importance of the received messages will help you
to raise meaningful questions in the order of
priority.

245

Asking unnecessary questions wastes time and is
irritating to the rest of the group.
Do not avoid raising questions for fear of being
considered less knowledgeable.

246

Asking questions should not be for show or for
challenging the authority of your tutors or
lecturers it should be thoroughly genuine for
learning and revising.

247

Problem solving
Problem solving is encountered in all aspects of
life.
Human beings are always confronted with problems
that they have to find solutions to.

248

Solutions to problems are not fixed they depend
on the subject or course being examined.

249

Integrating
Integrating is concerned with finding
relationships with respect to a body of unrelated
materials finding links between a variety of
different materials.

250

The unrelated materials could be theories or
opinions, facts on their own, a body of facts,
formulae, and equations.

251

You will need firstly to find out the common or
similar elements or parts of the sets of
materials facts, formulae and equations.

252

Integration is enhanced by ordering the variety
of materials according to a hierarchy, or order
of importance.

253

In integrating different sets of materials, you
have to reorganize your understanding of the
materials in question.

254

Creating
Both problem solving and integrating precede and
aid creating.
You have to be able to solve problems and
integrate information (messages) before you are
able to create or to develop something new.

255

Creating could consist of new hypotheses,
formulae, equations, methods or applications in
scientific terms and new literature and art in
the field of humanities.

256

To apply productively the theories learned
involves the mental abilities of questioning,
problem solving, integrating and creating.

257

Structure Review
Look at these sentences
1. What amounts to courtship will precede
arrangements for regularizing the official status
of husband and wife.
2. You are aware of how you will be tested.

258

3. She feels that she has learned the study
materials.
4. This means that you know the author of the
book.
A noun clause is a dependent or subordinate
clause. It functions as a noun in the sentence.

259

The noun clauses may be introduced by the
following words
who, what, which, whom, whose, whoever,
whichever, whatever, where, when, how, why,
whether, that

260

Since a noun clause may be used in the same way
in which a noun is used, it can occur anywhere in
the sentence where a noun can occur.

261

In sentence 1, the noun clause what amounts to
courtship is the subject of the sentence.
In sentence 2, the noun clause how you will be
tested is the object of preposition.

262

In sentences 3 and 4, the noun clause that she
has learned the study materials and that you
know the author of the book are both objects of
the sentences.

263

Unit 10Preparing for Examinations
General Aims
This unit is designed to help you learn a number
of words and the skills involved in using context
clues, and to promote your reading comprehension.

264

Behavioral Objectives
After carefully reading this unit, you are
expected to
1. Define the meaning of the words presented
at the beginning of this unit, and do Exercises
10-1 and 10-2.
2. Do Word Formation Exercises 10-3 and 10-4.

265

3. Do Word Formation Chart Exercise 10-5.
4. Do Comprehension Exercises 10-6, 10-7,
10-8 and 10-9.
5. Do Structure Review Exercise 10-10.

266

Unit 10 Summary
Preparing for Examinations
The purpose of exams
A large number of people are spending time
reading for study in order to pass examinations.

267

Generally examinations are meant to
a. measure to what extent you have gained a
certain body of knowledge and skills
b. measure how much or how effectively you
have studied or learned a particular subject

268

c. find out the degree to which you can apply or
relate the basic knowledge and skills to new
circumstances or situations
d. predict your future level of success in your
chosen field of study or profession

269

e. measure your general level of ability,
endurance and hard work to manage examinations at
your respective level
f. select and arrange individuals for
assigning duties and positions in society

270

g. motivate you to work hard throughout the
period of your study at school, college or
university
h. train you to have a disciplined approach to
life.

271

Important points to consider
a. Knowing the material that will be covered by
the examinations.

272

b. Being aware of the type of examination
questions likely to be set, e.g. objective,
true-false, multiple choice, matching, completion
or essay.

273

c. Finding out
the number of papers you are expected to sit
the time allocation for each paper and
the number of questions you are expected to
attempt.

274

d. Revising regularly over the period of your
study in school, college or university, leaving
some weeks for final revision

275

You should allocate particular times every week
for revising material already covered, linking
the new course material with what went before.

276

e. Practicing answering examination questions in
simulated examination conditions.
Go over critically what you have done or ask a
fellow student to do so and discuss it with him.

277

f. Discussing in groups helps to organize what
you have read.
Group discussion helps you to clarify your
thoughts.

278

Listen to your lecturer or tutor for areas of
topic emphasis or preferences.
Identify you tutor preferences particularly
during tutorial sessions.

279

Attend all classes, lectures and tutorials to
make sure that you have a complete feel of the
teachers and lecturers preferences.

280

Avoiding fatigue and boredom by building up the
needed energy for study through motivation,
courage and determination to succeed in
examinations.
You must have adequate sleep to remain in good
health.

281

In addition, you must have a proper diet, receive
medical treatment when needed, exercise
adequately and regularly, understand and be
absorbed in your coursework.

282

Avoiding anxiety for it is most likely to disrupt
and interfere with your examination performance.

283

In many instances anxiety is a result of your
fear of failing in the examinations on realizing
that you have not put in enough work or prepared
adequately.

284

J. Adopting an examination technique by getting
adequate sleep on the night of the examination.
Having the required writing material and physical
aids.
Doing everything possible to keep calm.

285

Structure Review
Look at these sentences
1. It would be useful to reflect what
examinations are.

286

2. Find the degree to which you can apply or
relate the basic knowledge and skills to new
circumstances or situations.

287

3. It is important to know the type of questions
because the manner of answering them varies from
type to type.

288

4. Revision of material covered for
examinations must be routine.
This means you should allocate particular times
every week for revising material already covered.

289