Aquaculture Making a good thing better

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Aquaculture Making a good thing better
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Aquaculture

• Global harvest of wild stocks 95 million tons
• Aquaculture supplies 60 million tons
• 70 billion dollar industry
• Additional 40 million tons by 2030
• US 1 billion dollar industry

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Aquaculture continued

• Many types for various purposes
• Human consumption
• Shrimp, salmon, milkfish, carp, bivalves, etc
• Feed (fish meal and oil)
• Ornamental

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Clam Bay, WA
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Carbon assimilation Capacities

• Natural rate of assimilation 17g C/m2-d
• Natural sedimentation 1 - 10g C/m2-d
• Farm sedimentation lt 180g C/m2-d
• Aerobic catabolism increases reducing dissolved
  O2
• Disruption of other pathways i.e., sulfate

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Effects of O2 depletion

• Worst areas within 3 meters
• Significant effects to 30 meters
• Recovery scale months to years
• Significant changes in infauna

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Measures for prevention

• Reducing the amount of feed
• Fallowing and chemical treatments
• Sites with large tidal movements
• Offshore farming
• Closed looped Water is treated and reused
• Integrated aquaculture

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Diseases

• Congregations of fish leading to infections
• Bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic
• Viruses no definitive treatment
• Infections spread to wild fish

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Antibiotics

• Used to treat bacterial infections
• Difficult to treat entire pen
• Secondary infections occur without complete
  treatments
• Extra antibiotics settle
• Loss of natural occurring bacteria
• Creation of antibiotic-resistant bacteria

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Just say no

• Vaccinations
• Improved monitoring
• Better management practices
• Regulated usage

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References

• BC Salmon Farmers Association. 2007.
  http//www.salmonfarmers.org.
• Brooks, Kenneth. An evaluation of the
  relationship between salmon farm biomass, organic
  inputs to sediments, physicochemical changes
  associated with those inputs and the infaunal
  response. 2001.
• Brown, L. Aquaculture for Veterinarians. 1993.
  Pergamon Press, New York, USA. 462 pp.
• Cultured Aquatic Species Information Programme.
  Food and Agriculture Organization. 2007
  http//www.fao.org/fi/website/FIRetrieveAction.do?
  domculturespeciesxmlSalmo_salar.xml.
• Lanteigne, Stephen. Office of the Commissioner
  for Aquaculture Development. Current Status and
  Potential of the Canadian Aquaculture Industry.
  2002.
• NOAA Aquaculture Program. Office of Sustainable
  Fisheries. 2007 http//www.nmfs.noaa.gov/mediacen
  ter/aquaculture/

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IMPACTS OF LANDBASED AQUACULTURE
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LANDBASED AQUACULTURE

• 6,250 pounds per acre versus 1,000 pounds per
  acre yield from beef cattle production.
• 1 billion dollar industry

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• Catfish 450
• Trout 74
• Tilapia
• Carp

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EFFLUENT
Turbidity Nutrients Antibiotics Pathogens
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Turbidity

• Suspended Solids
• Clay
• Plankton
• Uneaten Food
• Fish Waste

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Nutrification

• C, P, N
• Uneaten Food
• Fish Wastes
• Glebokie Lake
• Turbidity

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Eutrophication

• Excess Nitrate and Phosphate
• Enhanced Aquatic Growth, Phytoplankton
• Oxygen Depletion gt Fish Kills
• Decreased Biodiversity
• Toxins

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Cyanobacteria

• Grow and die rapidly in eutrophic conditions
• Release toxins

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Cyano-toxins

• Neurotoxins
• Hepetotoxins
• 2-methylisoborneol musty
• Geosmin muddy
• BMAA

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Viruses and Pathogens

• Single largest economic cost to operations
• Protozoan
• Bacterial
• Fungal
• Viral IHNV, IPNV, VHSV, CCVD

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Antibiotics
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Progress

• Polyculture
• Biofilms
• Ozonation/Radiation
• Filtration
• Aquaculture Hydroponics

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Shrimp Aquaculture

• Began in the 1970s
• Today about 50 countries farm shrimp

R.I.L.A.B. s.r.l., Genoa, Italy.
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1-2 phase cycle

• 2-phase
• Stock juveniles from hatchery to nursery ponds
  for several weeks
• Transfer to grow-out ponds
• 1-phase
• No nursery- stocked directly to grow-out ponds

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• Farms produce 2-3 crops/year
• Hatcheries Sell
• nauplii (tiny, newly hatched, first stage larvae)
• Sold to other hatcheries to be grown
• Postlarvae (passed through 3 larval stages)

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Hatchery cycle

• Gravid (ready to spawn shrimp) spawn at night
• Photoperiod manipulation induces shrimp to spawn
  at any time
• Shrimp produce 50,000-100,000 eggs per spawning
  cycle
• Depending on Temperature, species, size,
  wild/captive, and number of times spawned

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Shrimp stages

• Larval stage 1 eggs hatch into nauplii
• Feed on egg yolk reserves
• Larval stage 2 zoeae 3-5 days
• Feed on algae and formulated feeds
• Larval stage 3 myses 3-4 days
• Feed on algae and zooplankton
• Postlarvae
• Feed on zooplankton, detritus, commercial feeds
• PL 1-15, at PL15 shrimp are moved to a farm

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Small, Medium, Large Hatcheries

• Small-scale hatchery- mom and pop
• small tanks lt10 tons
• disease, water quality, and weather can knock out
  production
• Medium-scale hatchery
• Large tanks
• Low stocking densities
• Encourage ecosystem blooms in tanks
• Sometimes nutrients and bacteria added to
  encourage probiotics (good bacteria)
• Large-scale hatchery
• Multi-million operations
• Produce large quantities of shrimp (15-30 gallon
  tanks)
• Grow algae and brine shrimp for feed

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Nursery

• Postlarvae are cultured at high densities in
  small earthen ponds, tanks and raceways, or even
  in in closures within the growout ponds.
• Not always necessary
• Doesnt exceed 25 days

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Growout

• Extensive
• Tropics
• Low lying impoundments along bays and tidal
  rivers
• Shrimp feed on naturally occurring organisms

Rossenberry, Bob. 2006
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Growout cont.

• Semi-intensive
• Above high tide line
• Natural food and shrimp feeds (competition)
• Fertilized with N, P, Si
• Too many can have negative effects on the
  environment

Rossenberry, Bob. 2006
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Growout cont.

• Intensive
• Small enclosures
• High stocking densities
• Heavy feeding
• Waste removal, aeration
• Causes environmental problems

Rossenberry, Bob. 2006
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Growout cont.

• Super-Intensive
• 20,000-100,000 kg shrimp/hectare per year
• US produced 100,000/hectare/year wiped out by
  viral disease
• Encourages bacterial flocs to develop in
  super-intensive ponds. Flocs remove nitrogenous
  waste products from water, and shrimp feed on the
  flocs.

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Viral Disease

• Taura syndrome Virus (Discistrovividae
  cripavirus)
• Kills 40-90 post-larva shrimp
• Infection by cannibalism or water-borne exposure
• Symptoms
• Anorexia, lethargy, erratic swimming behavior,
  opacification of tail musculature, red tail
• 3-phases
• Acute, transition, chronic
• Structure
• 32 nm
• Non-enveloped particle with icosahedral
  morphology

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Viral Disease

• White-spot syndrome
• Lethal and contagious Kills 100 of pop.
• Infection through oral ingestion and water bourne
  routes in farms
• Eating infected shrimp wont harm humans
• Symptoms
• Decrease food consumption, lethargy, loose
  cuticle and reddish discoloration and whitespots
• Structure
• Rod-shaped
• Double stranded DNA
• 240-380 nm long

• Other viruses
• Yellowhead disease
• Infectious hypodermal
• Hematopoietic necrosis

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Bacterial Disease

• Vibriosis
• Vibrio spp.
• Mortality exceeds 70
• Can be fatal to humans
• Symptoms
• Weak and disoriented and have dark wounds on the
  cuticle
• Some cause luminescence
• Structure
• Gram negative bacteria posessing a curved shaped
  rod
• Found in SW
• Facultative anaerobes test positive for oxidase
  and dont form spores
• Motile and monotrichous (single polar flagellum)

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Bacterial Disease

• Necrotising hepatopancreatitis (NHP)
• Mortality rates up to 90 in 30 days
• Symptoms
• Flacid bodies, black or darkened gills, dark
  edges of pleopods and uropods, atrophied
  hepatopancreas that turns white
• Structure
• Small gram-negative
• Highly pleomorphic
• Rickettsia-like bacterium
• Prefers high temps, and high salinity

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Antibiotics for treatment

• Chloramphenicol
• Bateriostatic antimicrobial derived from
  bacterium Streptomyces venezuelae
• Cheap and effective against a variety of
  organisms
• Active against
• Gram positive/negative bacteria and anaerobes
• Pollutant
• Released into environment
• Causes serious side effects to humans
• Aplastic anemia (lower red blood cells)-fatal

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Shrimp Conclusions

• No effective treatment to diseases and pollutants
  from treatments
• Prevent contaminations before they occur
• Active water quality management
• Specific pathogen free broodstocks raised in
  isolated environments and certified not to carry
  diseases
• More controlled environments

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Estuary Mariculture
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Infections

• Infections
• Virus
• Fungi
• Protozoa
• Bacteria

• Virus
• Fungi
• Protozoa

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Bivalve migration Documented by Haglund et al.
1985
Range expansion
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Anthropogenic Influence
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Perkinsus marinus

• Infects Crassostrea virginica Crassostrea gigas
  
• Range
• Impact
• Control

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Haplosporidium nelsoni

• Infects C. virginica C. gigas
• Range
• Impact
• Control

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Herpes Virus (OsHV-1)

• Infects C. virginica, C. gigas, Ostrea edulis
  Ostrea angasi.
• Range
• Impact
• Control

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Concluding slide

• Good management can reduce impacts
• Integration of biology and technology promising
• Active water quality management prevents problems
• Anthropogenic influences on disease

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References

• Chautard, P. (ed.) Avalle, O. Millous, O.
  Vimaux, J.-F. Lélevage de la crevette en zone
  tropicale ("Shrimp farming in the tropical
  zone"), Centre pour le Développement de
  lEntreprise, Brussels, Belgium November 2003.
  In French. November 22, 2006.
• Funge-Smith, S. Briggs, M. Introductions and
  movement of Penaeus vannamei and Penaeus
  stylirostris in Asia and the Pacific, FAO RAP
  publication 2004/10. A PDF file of an abridged
  version presented at the workshop for
  "International Mechanisms for the Control and
  Responsible Use of Alien Species in Aquatic
  Ecosystems", Jinghong, Xishuangbanna, PRC August
  26  29, 2003, also exists.
• Global Aquaculture Alliance Antidumping. Last
  accessed Aug 23, 2005.
• Rosenberry, B. Annual Reports on World Shrimp
  Farming Comments on the quality of aquaculture
  statistics in the on-line excerpts 2000 - 2004.
  Aug 18, 2005.
• Rosenberry, B. About Shrimp Farming, ShrimpNews,
  August 2004. Last accessed Jun 28, 2005.
• Davis-Hodgkins, M. Laramore, R. Main, K.L.
  Mountain, J. Scarpa, J. Farming Marine Shrimp
  in Recirculating Freshwater Systems, Harbor
  Branch Oceanographic Institution (HBOI) Manual,
  1999.
• World Rainforest Movement Unsustainable versus
  sustainable shrimp production, WRM Bulletin 51,
  October 2001.
• Rosenberry, B. Species of Farm-Raised Shrimp,
  ShrimpNews, August 2004. Archived URL 2007-02-15.
  
• International Shrimp Action Network Prawn to
  Trade, Prawn to Consume, 2000. Last accessed June
  28, 2005.
• Gulf States Marine Fisheries Commission
  Non-Native Species Summaries Yellowhead Virus
  (YHV), 2003. June 23, 2005.
• Data extracted from the FAO Fisheries Global
  Aquaculture Production Database for the seven
  commonly farmed species plus Pennaeus spp. The
  most recent data sets are for 2004 and sometimes
  contain estimates. January 4, 2007.
• Rossenberry, Bob. 2006. World Shrimp farming
  2006. www.shrimpnews.com