Building Bridges between Social and Academic Language

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Building Bridges between Social and Academic
Language
Carol Westby, PhD Visiting Professor Brigham
Young University mocha_at_unm.edu Lee Robinson,
MS Associate Clinical Professor Brigham Young
University lee_robinson_at_byu.edu
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Oral Written Narrative Discourse
Interpersonal ToM Social Skills
Intrapersonal ToM Academic Success In literature m
ath social studies science
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Students

• TS
• Primary Diagnosis Asperger Syndrome
• Age 12
• Strengths memory general language skills good
  attention stays with tasks/doesnt complain
• Needs weak emotional understanding low
  self-regulation of behavior/ emotions
  misinterpretation of social situations academic
  weakness at higher discourse levels
• Family single mom, older sister and brother,
  younger brother

• ZM
• Primary Diagnosis ADHD, Inattentive Type,
  Sluggish Cognitive Tempo (not medicated)
• Age 17
• Strengths pleasant, cooperative willing some
  topics of interest can talk to adults
• Needs Unaware of the messages his behavior
  sends language impairment very slow processor
• Family two-parent family oldest of 8 children

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Academic Language

• The set of words, grammar, and organizational
  strategies used to describe complex ideas,
  higher-order thinking processes, and abstract
  concepts

Zwiers, J. (2008). Building academic language
Essential practices for content classrooms.
Newark, DE International Reading Association.
5
Features of Academic GrammarLexicalization

• Science text
• Spiders are not insects.//They always have
  eight jointed legs,//not six as insects
  have,//and they never have wings.//The feeling
  organs on their head are not antennae but
  leg-like structures called palps.//Spiders all
  have a pair of poison fangs and several pairs of
  spinnerets// which produce silk.

• Oral text
• Like I reckon he would have been really nice
  but now that hes been to all the towns and seen
  like theres no life or anything and he comes
  into the valley and sees Ann and sees life and he
  just wanted power over her because hes never had
  power or anything before.

Zwiers, J. (2008). Building academic language
Essential practices for content classrooms.
Newark, DE International Reading Association.
6
Features of Academic Grammar

• Passive voice places emphasis on object rather
  than subject subject may not be present
• The radius is then plugged into the formula for
  the area of the circle
• Nominalization turning verbs into nouns
  condenses lengthy explanations into a few words
• The condemnation of dissenting perspectives led
  to revolution.
• The virus adapted to survive outside the body.
  This mutation allowed it to be passed on by
  causal contact.

Zwiers, J. (2008). Building academic language
Essential practices for content classrooms.
Newark, DE International Reading Association.
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Bricks and Mortar
Zwiers, J. (2008). Building academic language
Essential practices for content classrooms.
Newark, DE International Reading Association.
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Terms used in building academic sentences
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Features of Academic Grammar

• Dependent clauses
• Adverbial Although several precautions were
  taken, the key was lost.
• Adjectival (relative) The colonists, who felt
  they did not have representation, dumped the tea
  into Boston Harbor.
• Noun Where the rebels were going was unknown.

Zwiers, J. (2008). Building academic language
Essential practices for content classrooms.
Newark, DE International Reading Association.
10
Functions of Academic Language

• To describe complex concepts, e.g.,
• Relationships between characters
• Causes and effects of major events
• Geological forces that change the planet
• To describe higher-order thinking processes
• Analyzing, evaluation, synthesizing, persuading,
  predicting, explaining, comparing, interpreting,
  inferring, implying
• To describe abstraction (relationships that
  cannot be pointed out or illustrated), e.g.,
• On the other hand, the two scientists had
  differing views on the topic of evolution
• Constraints on the childs working memory are
  contributing to the childs poor expository
  writing

Zwiers, J. (2008). Building academic language
Essential practices for content classrooms.
Newark, DE International Reading Association.
11
Structure of Academic TextDemands on Working
Memory

• Statements must link to a central topic/theme
• Statements must be linked to one another
• The nature of the link between statements can be
  explicit (because, as a result, ifthen) rather
  than general (and, then, so)
• Statements are simultaneously link to the central
  topic and to each other
• The content is organized according to the
  discourse genre
• Elements compared/contrasted
• Multiple views in argumentation

Scardamalia, M. (1981). How children cope with
the cognitive demands of writing. In C.
Frederiksen J.F. Dominic (Eds.), Writing The
nature, development, and teaching of written
communication. Hillsdale, NJ Erlbaum.
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Features of Academic Language

• Using figurative language
• Boils down to, read between the lines, sidestep
  the issue, that answer doesnt hold water, a thin
  argument, crux of the matter
• Being explicit for distant audiences
• Remaining detached from the message
• Supporting points with evidence
• Conveying nuances of meaning with models
• Would, could, might, can, will, shall, must,
  should, ought to
• Softening the message with qualifiers (hedges)
• Perhaps, usually, generally, relatively,
  theoretically, likely, presumably
• Distinguish from oral hedges (must, mainly, sort
  of, pretty, I mean, maybe, more or less)

Zwiers, J. (2008). Building academic language
Essential practices for content classrooms.
Newark, DE International Reading Association.
13
Theories of Language Development

• Traditional Theories
• Formal theories
• Language is modular distinct from other
  cognitive functions
• Develops from innate universal grammar
• Creates a set of abstractions about syntactic
  structures
• Functional theories
• Language is a type of cognition
• Language emerges out of childs experiences
• Focus on semantics pragmatics

• Emergentism Theories
• Behavior does not arise from independent modules
  it is an emergent consequence of interactions
  across multiple domains
• Herteroarchical interaction across levels
• Integrated neural networks of associations that
  detect regularities in input
• Development is self-organizing

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Thelen, E., Bates, E. (2003). Connectionism and
dynamic systems Are they really different?
Developmental Science, 6(4), 378-391.
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Communication Metaphors

• Traditional Language Processing
• Transmission Metaphor
• signal response
• sending receiving
• encoding and decoding

• Dynamic Systems
• Dance Metaphor
• engagement disengagement
• synchrony discord
• breakdown and repair

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Dynamic Tricky Mix LEARN Framework
Launchers
Networks
Enhancers
Adjustments
Readiness
Based on Nelson, K.E., Craven, P.L., Xuan, Y.,
Arkenberg, M.E. (2004). Acquiring art, spoken
language, sign language, text, and other symbolic
systems Developmental and evolutionary
observations from a dynamic tricky mix
theoretical perspective. In J.M Lucariello et al.
(Eds.), The development of the mediated mind.
Mahwah, NJ Erlbaum.
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LEARN Components

• Launching conditions motivate learning
• require some active involvement (engagement) in a
  relevant activity that includes some challenge
• includes a least minimal attention and storage in
  long-term memory
• Enhancing conditions mediate learning
• By others
• Recasting, modeling, scaffolding
• By the child
• Metacognitive awareness self-monitoring of
  performance

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LEARN Components

• Adjustment conditions
• By the child
• Response to performance
• Beliefs about self
• By others
• Influence on social, emotional, motivational
  states during childs learning
• Readiness conditions preparedness for challenges
• Temperament, emotion regulation, attention,
  language skills, memory, information processing
  systems, domain knowledge
• Neural networks
• Activate/develop neural networks with activities
  that involve parallel processing

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Influences on AdjustmentPerformance Goal
Orientation

• Approach Focus
• Focus on getting the task done doing what
  teacher asked being superior, besting others,
  being the best at task, being the smartest
• Use of normative standards such as getting the
  best or highest grades, being the top performer
  in class

• Avoidance Focus
• Use normative standards of not getting worst
  grades, not being lowest performer

Elliot, A.J. (1999) Approach and avoidance
motivation and achievement goals. Educational
Psychologist, 34, 169-189.
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Influences on AdjustmentMastery Goal Orientation

• Approach Focus
• Focus on mastering task, learning, understanding
• Use standards of self-improvement, progress, deep
  understanding of task

• Avoidance Focus
• Focus on avoiding misunderstanding, not learning
  or mastering task, losing skills or competencies
• Use standards of not being wrong, doing it
  incorrectly relative to task or previous
  performance

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Intersubjectivity

• The sharing of personal content
• feelings
• perceptions
• thoughts
• linguistic meanings
• among a number of persons

Zlatev, J., Racine, T.P., Sinha, C., Itkonen,
E. (2008). Intersubjectivity What makes us
human? (pp. 1-14). In J. Zlatev, T.P. Racine, C.
Sinha, E. Itkonen (Eds.), The shared mind
Perspectives on intersubjectivity. John
Benjamins Amsterdam.
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Propositions underlying intersubjectivity

• Humans are primordially connected in their
  intersubjectivity they dont need to infer that
  others have experiences and mentalities that are
  similar to their own
• Sharing of experiences in not primarily on a
  cognitive level, but more basically on the level
  of affect, perceptual processes and
  action-oriented engagements
• Such sharing and understanding is based on
  interaction (empathetic perception, imitation,
  gesture, and collaboration)
• Crucial cognitive capacities are initially social
  and interactional and are only later understood
  in representation terms

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Primary intersubjectivity

• Affective coordination between the gestures and
  expressions of the infant and those of caregivers
  with whom they interact
• Remains primary across all face-to-face
  intersubjective experiences
• Map visually perceived motions of others onto
  ones kinesthetic sensations
• Linked to mirror neurons

Gallagher, S., Hutto, D.D. (2008).
Understanding others through primary interaction
and narrative practice (pp. 17-38). In J. Zlatev,
T.P. Racine, C. Sinha, E. Itkonen (Eds.), The
shared mind Perspectives on intersubjectivity.
John Benjamins Amsterdam.
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Secondary intersubjectivity

• Shared contexts of attention
• Intentionality is perceived in the actions of
  others

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Intentional Relations/Simulation Theory

• Explain how children begin to predict what others
  are thinking and feeling
• As children observe others, they match their own
  intentional relations (IRs) and the IRs of others
• They predict what others do by predicting what
  they would do in the same situation
• They must reflect on their own mental states

But how do children come to understand that
others might have thoughts and feelings that are
different from their own
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Narrative Practice Hypothesis

• Stories are natural extensions of childrens
  earlier experiences of sharing of event
  structures
• Engaging in story-telling practices with the
  support of others enables children to develop
  understanding of what it is to act for a reason
• Competency with different kinds of narratives
  enables us to understand others in a variety of
  ways
• Narrative training causally influences what are
  basic theory of mind skills

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Narratives provide knowledge of

• What actions are acceptable and in what
  circumstances
• What sort of events are important and noteworthy
• What can account for action
• What kind of explanations constitute the giving
  of good reasons
• What we can expect of others
• What others can expect of us
• What others ought to and are likely to do
• What others ought to and are likely to think and
  feel

Gallagher, S., Hutto, D.D. (2008).
Understanding others through primary interaction
and narrative practice (pp. 17-38). In J. Zlatev,
T.P. Racine, C. Sinha, E. Itkonen (Eds.), The
shared mind Perspectives on intersubjectivity.
John Benjamins Amsterdam.
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Theory of Mind (emerges at age 4)

• Ability to attribute mental states (beliefs,
  intents, pretending, knowledge) to oneself and
  others and to understand that others have
  beliefs, desires, and intentions that are
  different from ones own
• Ability to predict what others are thinking and
  what they will do from what we know about them
  and the world

Doherty, M.J. (2009). Theory of mind How
children understand others thoughts and
feelings. New York Taylor Francis.
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Intersubjectivity and Theory of Mind
Lucariello, J. (2004). New insights into the
functions, development, and origins of theory of
mind The functional multilinear socialization
model. In L. Lucariello, et al (Eds.), The
development of the mediated mind. Mahwah Erlbaum.
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Self Determination/Self-Regulatory Processes
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Goals of Intervention

• Increase use of intrapersonal and interpersonal
  ToM

• Increase academic language
• measured by use of complex clauses and
  connective/mortar words

• Increase ability to make inferences in social
  situations and academic texts
• Intrapersonal measured by and variety of
  appropriate statements in think alouds
  reflections on experiences
• Interpersonal measured by and variety of
  correct inferences made in response to social
  problem solving situations and academic texts
  (e.g., interpretation of characters thoughts and
  feelings in stories)

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Think Aloud

• Students read silently as teacher reads aloud.
  Teacher thinks through trouble spots
• Make predictions From the title I think this
  will be about...
• Describe the pictures you form in your head about
  the information. I have a picture of this scene
  in my head and this is what it looks like....
• Develop analogies Show how to link prior
  knowledge to new information in text. This
  reminds me of....
• Make inferences from pictures and words I think
  Stanley feels frustrated because
• Demonstrate fix-up strategies Show how to make
  sense of the passage. Id better reread. or
  Ill read ahead and see if I can get some more
  information.
• After you complete reading and think aloud,
  encourage students to add their own thoughts to
  yours.

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Inferences Maybe the chest is really important
Stanley was told to look for things in the
holes. Why arent the lizards biting is
something protecting him? Maybe hes looking at
the warden, cause she wanted him to find
something. Maybe the chest is what the warden had
been looking for. The warden cant get the chest
cause the lizards are on it. Wont be able to
get whats in the chest
Observations Stanley in hole Lizards with yellow
spots on him Lizards arent biting him Seems to
be looking up at someone Doesnt look happy Old
chest in background Many lizards on chest
Nokes, J.D. (2008). The observation/inference
chart Improving students abilities to make
inferences while reading nontraditional texts.
Journal of Adolescent Adult Literacy, 517,
538-546.
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Observation/Inference Rubric

• Observations
• Few observations
• Many observations but not specific or detailed
• Many observations including ones that are
  specific and detailed
• Inferences linked to observations
• Some inferences but they are not based on
  observations
• Bases inferences on observations but does not
  show the relationship
• Bases inferences on observation and shows the
  relationship
• Inferences
• Makes few inferences or inferences that have no
  basis
• Several good inferences, but explanations may be
  fairly obvious
• Many good inferences, including ones that show
  depth of thinking

Nokes, J.D. (2008). The observation/inference
chart Improving students abilities to make
inferences while reading nontraditional texts.
Journal of Adolescent Adult Literacy, 517,
538-546.
35
Classes of Inferences

• Anaphoric references pronoun/noun-phrase that
  refers to previous text entity
• Bridging/relational semantically or conceptually
  relating sentence to previous content
• Explanation-based/causal explain what is read by
  a causal chain or network of previous events and
  states

• The warden scratched Mr. Sir. She was furious
  with him.
• Making the connection between the eating onions
  and not being bitten by lizards
• Stanley befriending Zero, carrying him up the
  mountain and saving his life breaks the curse of
  Madam Zaroni and brings the family good luck.

Snow, C. (2002). Reading for understanding
Toward an R D program in reading comprehension.
Rand Corporation.
36
Classes of Inferences

• Predictive forecast what events will unfold
• Goal infer intentions of agent
• Elaborative properties and associations that
  cannot be explained by causal relationships

• I predict that Hugo and the old man will become
  friends
• Hugo steals toys because he needs the parts for
  the automaton
• The Wardens nail polish has rattlesnake venom in
  it. So when she scratches Mr. Sir, you must
  realize that the scratch will be more painful and
  harmful than an ordinary scratch

Snow, C. (2002). Reading for understanding
Toward an R D program in reading comprehension.
Rand Corporation.
37
Internal States Inference Chart
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Predicting Dialogue Thoughts
Mr. Sir isnt doing his job. Hes got to learn
what I want!
I dont care what the boys do as long as they
find the treasure
Shell be pleased with how Im handling the boys
and reward me.
Theres been a little trouble on the lake.
Caveman will tell you about it.
Thats why you brought him here?
The Warden
Mr. Sir
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(No Transcript)
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Perspectives
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Inner-Outer Prediction Chart
Zero has run off into the desert
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Inner-Outer Prediction Chart
Borrowing the car
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Five intervention rules

• Slow down the interaction
• Make the implicit explicit
• Plan activities that are relevant and meaningful
• Use academic tasks to aid in teaching social
  communication
• Use social communication to aid in teaching
  academics

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Angry
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Sad
Mind Reading The Interactive Guide for Emotions
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Scaffolded Techniques to DevelopInter- and
Intrapersonal Thought

• Think aloud
• Observation inference chart/rubric
• Internal states chart
• Predicting dialogue and thoughts chart
• Perspectives chart
• Inner-outer prediction chart
• Mind reading

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Identifying adverbial clauses

• If you take a bad boy and make him dig a hole
  every day in the hot sun, it will turn him into a
  good boy.
• Not every Stanley Yelnats has been a failure,
  Stanleys mother often pointed out, whenever
  Stanley or his father became so discouraged that
  they actually started to believe in the curse.
• The bus ride became increasingly bumpy because
  the road was no longer paved

based on Killgallon, D., Killgallon, J.
(2000). Sentence composing for elementary school.
Portsmouth, NH Heinemann.
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Combining

• they would go not only to Doc Hawthorn but also
  to Sam.
• They did this whenever they were sick.
• Whenever they were sick, they would go not only
  to Doc Hawthorn but also to Sam.

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Unscrambling

• because he wouldnt have time to rinse off the
  suds
• which was just as well
• He never managed to use his bar of soap
• He never managed to use his bar of soap, which
  was just as well, because he wouldnt have time
  to rinse off the suds.

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Expanding

• If.. youll get the rest of the day off. (e.g.,
  the warden likes what you found)
•  
• It (the pool table) was full of bumps and holes
  because.(e.g., so many people had carved their
  initials into the felt)
•  

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Generating

• Write 3 sentences with adverbial when clauses
  that tell what happened when Stanley found the
  metal tube in the hole he had dug.. Possible
  examples could be
•  When Stanley found the piece of metal in his
  hole, X-Ray demanded that he give it to him.
•  Stanley wondered, when he found the piece of
  metal in his hole, what the warden would do.
•   Stanley thought he would get the day off when
  he found the lipstick tube in his hole .

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Concepts Expressed by Conjunctions
Relationship Belief about Propositional
Truth Belief
Disbelief or
Uncertainty Positive Because (7 years)
If (11 years) Negative
Although Unless
(11 years)
(13-15 yrs)
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Steps in Connective Development

• Personal
• My brother had to go to summer school because he
  failed English.
• If I have 10, Ill buy that new CD.
• I wont get to go to the movies unless I clean my
  room. Or Ill go to the movies unless I dont
  clean my room.
• Ill take the Hershey bar, although its not my
  favorite.
• Narrative
• Zero dug Stanleys holes because Stanley was
  teaching him to read.
• If Stanley finds something valuable, hell get a
  day off.
• Stanley wont get a day off unless he finds
  something the warden wants.
• Stanley said he had taken the sunflower seeds
  although he had not.
• Theoretical/expository
• The ice melted because the temperature was above
  320 F.
• If its attracted to the magnet, its metal.
• Take the blocks that are on the table unless they
  are wooden.
• Illegal immigrants work hard although they are
  not paid much.

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Learning Multiple Meaning Words

• Many English words have multiple meanings
• Children with language impairments (LI) have
  fewer meanings for words
• Children with LI frequently have difficulty
  retrieving word meanings
• Ability to rapidly retrieve word meanings
  promotes comprehension

Wolf, M., Miller, L, Donnelly, K. (2000).
Retrieval, automaticity, vocabulary, elaboration,
orthography (RAVE-O) A comprehensive,
fluency-based reading intervention program.
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33, 375-386.
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Learning Multiple Meaning Words

• Activate prior knowledge of the meanings of
  target words
• Multiple presentations of target words in a
  variety of contexts
• Promote active and generative processing
• Self-assessment of vocabulary knowledge and
  awareness

Nelson, J.R., Marchand-Martella, N. (2005). The
multiple meaning vocabulary program. Boston, MA
Sopris West.
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Multiple meaning wordsinnocent
Nelson, J.R., Stage, S.A. (2007). Fostering the
development of vocabulary knowledge and reading
comprehension through contextually-based multiple
meaning vocabulary instruction. Education and
Treatment of Children, 30, 1-22.
57
Multiple meaning words

• Not guilty of an offense
• Blameless Stanley was blameless of the robbery.
• Guiltless The court did not find Stanley
  guiltless.
• In the clear Stanleys social worker proved that
  he was in the clear.
• Not experienced
• Naïve Stanley was naïve about the functioning of
  the court.
• Unsophisticated Stanleys unsophisticated
  parents did not the implications of sending
  Stanley to Camp Green Lake.
• Unaware Zero was unaware that the sploosh would
  make him sick.
• Not dangerous or harmful
• Harmless A yellow-spotted lizard is not
  harmless.
• Risk free Being sent to Camp Green Lake was not
  risk free.
• Playful Sometimes the boys argued in a playful
  manner.

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Multiple meaning wordsMatch the sentence to its
meaning

• not guilty of an offense
• not experienced
• not dangerous or harmful

• Stanley thought his comment was innocent, but it
  made Zero very angry.
• Stanley was a really good kid he was too
  innocent to be with boys who were real bullies.
• Stanleys parents knew Stanley was innocent of
  stealing the shoes.

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Is the word used as expected?

• When Zero confessed to stealing the shoes, he
  proved he was innocent.
• Stanleys teaching Zero to read was an innocent
  activity.
• X-ray really knew how to survive in at Camp Green
  Lake. He was the boys leader because he was so
  innocent.
• The social worker knew Stanley was innocent
  because he was in school when the shoes were
  taken.

60
Figurative Language
What it Describes
Language in the Text
Explanation
Suddenly it was as if the light went on in his
head
Hugo knew what he needed to do to fix the
automaton
You can see better in light. Hugo hadnt been
able to figure out how to fix the automaton but
then it made sense
A million questions floated through the fog in
Hugos mind.
His fathers dead its hard for him to think
You cant see well in fog and its easy to get
lost you cant figure out where youre going
Hugo thought there was something wrong with
himself because he couldnt fix the automaton

Hugo felt broken himself.
If something is broken, it doesnt work it
doesnt do what its supposed to its useless
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Features of Questioning the Author (QtA)

• Addresses text as product of fallible author
• Deals with text through open-ended,
  goal-directed, teacher-posed questions
• Takes place in the context of reading as it
  occurs
• Encourages discussion in which students grapple
  with ideas in the service of constructing meaning

Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G. (2006). Improving
comprehension with questioning the author. New
York Scholastic. .
62
Characteristics of QtA Discussion

• Students do the work of the thinking and
  discovering on their own
• Students begin to see the difference between what
  the author says and inferring what the author
  means
• The tone of the interaction is meant to be
  positive

63
Questioning the Author

• Goal Initiating queries
• What is the author trying to say here?
• What do you think the author wants us to know?
• What is the author talking about?
•  

Beck, I.L., McKeown, M.G. (2006). Improving
comprehension with questioning the author. New
York Scholastic.
64
Questioning the Author

• Goal Follow-up queries
• So what does the author mean right here?
• Thats what the author said, but what did the
  author mean?
• Does this make sense with what the author told us
  before?
• How does this connect to what the author told us
  earlier?
• Why do you think the author tells us this now?

65
Narrative Queries

• How do things look for this character now?
• How does the author let you know that something
  has changed?
• How has the author worked that out for us?
• Given what the author has already told us about
  this character, what do you think hes up to?
• How is the author making you feel right now about
  these characters?
• What is the author telling us with conversation?

66
Self Determination

• People controlling their own lives and their own
  destinies
• Persons with higher levels of self determination
  are more independent and have a better quality of
  life

Wehmeyer, M. L., Schwartz, M. (1998). The
self-determination focus of transition goals for
students with mental retardation. Career
Development for Exceptional Individuals, 21,
7586. Wehmeyer, M., Schwartz, M. (1998a). The
relationship between self-determination and
quality of life for adults with mental
retardation. Education and Training in Mental
Retardation and Developmental Disabilities, 33,
312.
67
Components of Self-Determination

• Choice-making
• Decision-making
• Problem solving
• Goal setting and attainment
• Self-advocacy and leadership skills
• Self-management and self-regulation
• Positive perceptions of control and efficacy
• Self-knowledge and self-awareness

Wehmeyer, M.L. (1996). Self-determination as an
educational outcome Why is it important to
children, youth, and adults with disabilities? In
D.J. Sands M.L. Wehmeyer (Eds.),
Self-determination across the lifespan
Independence and choice for people with
disabilities (pp. 17-36). Baltimore Brookes.
68
FIG TESPN (Social Problem Solving)
Elias, M.J (2004). Strategies to infuse social
and emotional learning into academics. In J.E.
Zins, R.P. Weissberg, M.C. Wang, H.J. Wallberg
(Eds.). Building academic success on social and
emotional learning. New York Teachers College
Press.
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Simplified Book Talk for Young Readers

• I will write about this character
• This characters problem is
• How did your character get into this problem?
• How does the character feel?
• What does the character want to happen?
• What questions would you like to be able to ask
  the character that you picked, one of the other
  characters, or the author?

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LEARN Dynamic Tricky Mix
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LEARN Dynamic Tricky Mix
75
Major Themes

• Intersubjectivity/theory of mind underlie all
  social and academic learning
• Intervention is not a choice between social and
  academic learning social and academic skills and
  knowledge are interactive
• Ultimately, persons must be able to self-regulate
  their own behaviors and self-determine their own
  goals