Philosophical Calisthenics

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Philosophical Calisthenics

• By Norman R. Schultz

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WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY? Similarities and Differences
Between Philosophy and Science

• Both philosophy and science search for truth by
  postulating hypotheses, forming theories, and
  evaluating the quality of available theories.
• If an inquiry can be settled via empirical
  methods (observation experimentation), it is a
  SCIENCE.
• If an inquiry cannot be settled via empirical
  methods because of a conceptual problem, it is
  PHILOSOPHY.
• 1. State whether the following questions are
  matters of science, philosophy, or both. Explain.
• How many chromosomes does a human being have?
• What caused the extinction of the dinosaurs?
• Is homosexual sex unnatural?
• Have extraterrestrials visited Earth?
• Are all forms of depression caused by chemical
  imbalances in the brain?
• What caused the universe to exist?

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WORKING WITH ARGUMENTS

• Ex Heraclitus, a pre-socratic Greek philosopher,
  said You cant step into the same river twice
  by which he meant that everything is in a state
  of change (which was is a theory of reality, or
  metaphysics).
• Here is his argument laid out in standard form
  - with premises numbered first and the conclusion
  last
• P1 Everything is either being formed or
  decaying.
• P2 Both forming and decaying are states of
  change.
• C Everything is in a state of change.
• 2. Can you think of exceptions to P1? If so, what
  are they?

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ISOLATING ARGUMENT CONCLUSIONS

• 3. Isolate the conclusion in the following
  arguments if you have time, try putting them in
  standard form.
• Since the good, according to Plato, is that
  which furthers a persons real interests, it
  follows that in any given case when the good is
  known, men will seek it. (from Philosophy and
  the Human Spirit by Avrum Stroll)
• Neither a borrower nor lender be. For loan oft
  loses both itself and friend, and borrowing dulls
  the edge of husbandry. (Shakespeare)
• When individuals voluntarily abandon property,
  they forfeit any expectation of privacy in it
  that they might have had. Therefore, a
  warrantless search or seizure of abandoned
  property is not unreasonable under the 4th
  amendment. (from U.S. v. Jones)

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CLARIFYING DEFINITIONS

• Before one can accept or challenge an argument,
  the meaning of the terms in it must be
  understood. Example you overhear the following
• I thought professors were supposed to be
  intelligent. Well, guess who I just saw in the
  parking lot asking for a jump-start for their
  car? The guy left his damn lights on! (This
  illustrates that the word intelligent can mean
  several different things the word is
  ambiguous.)
• 4. For the following statements give which word
  needs clarification and why
• I really dont want to buy a car they are so
  expensive.
• Well, youll never get a job with that haircut!
• President Clinton I did not have sex with that
  woman.
• 90 of Americans believe in God.
• Tobacco kills 1 million Americans per year.
• Im scared of feminists!

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FORMULATING COUNTEREXAMPLES

• One can offer a refutation of a statement by
  formulating a counterexample a scenario that
  contradicts the point being made.
• Ex. Countries which practice the death penalty
  have lower crime rates than countries that do
  not. The fact that Canada has a (significantly)
  lower crime rate than does the U.S. but does not
  practice the death penalty is a counterexample.
• 5. Refute these hypotheses by offering a
  counterexample. Feel free to use your
  imagination!
• In order to be completely happy it is necessary
  to have shelter and clothing.
• Every great nation must defend its interests with
  brute force.
• If people lost their fear of hell they would stop
  going to church.
• No rational person would choose to have an
  abortion if they knew that a fetus was genuinely
  a person from the moment of conception.

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EXAMINING IMPLICATIONS

• Considering the implications of an idea is an
  important means of evaluating whether the idea is
  plausible. For example, Heraclitus statement
  everything is in a state of constant change can
  be seen as having far-reaching implications,
  especially if change means to become something
  different.
• The warranty on your car. Wouldnt the car you
  drive off the lot be a different car than the one
  you signed for? Would you even own it?
• A person sentenced to 10 years prison. It is said
  that every cell in our bodies is replaced over
  the course of 7 years. Doesnt that mean that
  after that Im no longer the same person? If so,
  how can we sentence anyone to more than 7 years
  time, regardless of their crime?
• 6. Briefly discuss the implications of the
  following ideas
• In criminal court the accused should be
  considered guilty until proven innocent.
• For security reasons, every human being should
  have an irremovable tracking/identification
  device placed under their skin.
• Churches and other religious organizations should
  be taxed.
• All evil actions are countered by good actions
  (and vice versa).
• Every event has a cause.

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DEFINITIONAL METHODS

• Most people are not aware of this, but there are
  multiple ways of defining a word. Here are just
  four possibilities
• Platos Method List a things essential
  attributes. For example, an essential attribute
  of a shirt is that it is a garment to be worn
  over the torso.
• Ostensive Method Point at an example to indicate
  what it is. That is a window
• Operational Method State the things use or
  practical application. A projector something
  that projects an image onto something else.
• Wittgensteins Method Determine a set of family
  resemblances - an overlapping network of common
  characteristics for which a thing need not have
  every one. For example, a cell phone may have an
  antennae, microphone, screen, number pad,
  rechargeable battery, Call and End button,
  etc.
• 7. Decide which definitional method works best
  for the following terms
• A car
• Gravity
• A person