AS Level Week 12

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AS Level Week 12 13 Theory

• Module 1
• Theories of Learning

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• Theories of Learning
• If you can identify the best method to develop a
  skill, the learning time can be reduced and the
  result transferred to a competitive situation.
• There are 3 theories that need to be
  understood-
• Conditioning theory
• Cognitive theory / insight learning
• Observational learning.

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• Conditioning Theories of Learning
• There are 4 main styles of conditioning theory.
• Connectionist or associationist theories.
• They are based on the behaviourist approach
  which basic notion involves the performer
  developing a specific link with a certain cue,
  this is known as the stimulus - response bond
  or S - R bond. The response is stored in the
  long term memory and when the specific stimulus
  is detected, the appropriate movement is
  triggered. A certain stimulus offers a particular
  response.
• Practical example- a cricket batsman will
  attempt to play a certain type of shot each time
  the bowler pitches the ball in a particular area.
  
• If the response is ineffective the S - R bond is
  weakened. Performer being told which shot to play.

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• Operant Conditioning (Skinner 1974)
• Operant conditioning involves a gradual process
  of elimination which will develop the appropriate
  response with the correct use of reinforcement.
• In order for this to occur, the learner may
  experience either reinforcement or punishment.
• Reinforcement strengthens the S - R bond while
  punishment weakens it. (child learning the piano,
  plays wrong note gets whack on hand)
• Reinforcement can take two forms positive and
  negative.
• Positive reinforcement - the use of a stimulus
  to create feelings of satisfaction to encourage
  the repetition of the action, e.g praise from the
  coach, applause, kinaesthetic feedback or any
  other type of reward.
• Negative reinforcement - this involves the
  withdrawal of an unpleasant stimulus when the
  desired response occurs, e.g the coach will stop
  shouting at the team or player.

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• Punishment may also be used effectively to
  reduce the likelihood of the reactions being
  repeated. This can include being dropped or being
  penalized for foul play. However punishment can
  cause resentment and have an adverse effect. Use
  carefully.
• Photocopy of Practical Application
• Numerous sports skills are developed using this
  method. Whilst their use does facilitate the
  learning and refining of skills, a disadvantage
  may be the lack of understanding as to why the
  skill is being executed in a particular manner.
  As a result when the performer enters a
  competitive situation, they may not be able to
  adapt their conditioned skill to a new
  environment.
• Top tip- Do not confuse negative reinforcement
  with negative feedback or punishment. Negative
  reinforcement would be to stop reminding the
  performer to do something. Where as negative
  feedback would be the coach criticizing the
  performer.

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• Thorndikes Laws of Learning
• In order to make the strengthening of the S-R
  bond (stimulus response) more effective,
  Thorndike suggested 3 laws.
• 1. Law of exercise - the performer must practice
  the task regularly in favourable conditions e.g.
  when reinforcement is used
• 2. Law of effect - the performer is more likely
  to repeat the task if their behaviour is followed
  by experiences of satisfaction e.g. positive
  reinforcement.
• 3. Law or readiness - the performer is
  physically and mentally able to complete the task
  e.g. has the appropriate motivation and
  physiological development.

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• Drive reduction Theory (Hull)
• Hull suggested that learning will occur due to
  the performers desire to complete the task and
  only by achieving their drive will they be
  satisfied.
• Too much repetition of a skill during the
  learning phase may actually demotivate the
  performer and cause inhibition.
• Hull proposed that an effective way to strengthen
  the S-R bond is to ensure the drive or
  motivation of the performer is always maintained.
  This will involve the teacher/coach setting new
  challenging goals allowing continued development
  to occur.

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• Practical Application
• A coach will initially set a novice tennis
  player the target of learning to play a basic
  forehand shot. When this has been mastered, a new
  goal has to be set to maintain the performers
  interest and strengthen the S-R bond, such as the
  forehand shot. The process continues once this
  skill has been developed.
• Photocopy of Theory
• A weakness of conditioning theories is that the
  performer may not fully understand the
  relationship between the stimulus and response as
  they have only be concerned with the outcome of
  their action. Therefore their performance may be
  hindered, as they may be unable to modify their
  actions accordingly. This occurs because the new
  situation differs from their established pattern
  of movement and set environmental conditions.
  Conditioning theories are often stereotypically
  used by the armed forces.

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• Cognitive Theories of Learning/Insight Learning
• The cognitive theory of learning, or Gestalt
  theory, proposes that a performer learns by
  thinking about the whole problem.
• They understand what is required and formulate a
  response based on previous experiences plus the
  current situation, rather than a series of
  specific responses to various stimuli.
• They use their perceptual skills to formulate a
  motor programme suited to the current situation
  and their own abilities.
• This form of learning is also known a insight
  learning, as there is a clear discovery of the
  relationship between the stimulus and response.
  Trial and error learning is not involved in this
  process.

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• The coach would ask the performer to complete
  the whole movement in order to develop an
  appreciation of how the timing and subroutines of
  the movement are inter-related rather than break
  down the skill into its component parts (as in
  the conditioning theory).
• Practical Application
• A novice high jumper would be asked to complete
  the entire sequence rather than be taught in
  stages, giving them the opportunity to work out
  the most effective movement for them.

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• Observational Learning
• Many people learn most effectively by watching
  others and copying their actions. This is known
  as vicarious experience .
• It is often more productive than merely giving
  instructions, as a mental picture is formed
  allowing the individual to create movement
  patterns more easily.
• The use of demonstrations can also be made more
  effective if reinforcement is used and the model
  (person demonstrating) is either a significant
  other or a competent performer from their own
  peer group.
• Bandura suggested there should be 4 key elements
  in place to allow this process t occur.
• 1. Attention - the amount of notice taken by the
  learner while observing the model. Coach can
  place emphasis on specific cues.

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• 2. Retention - the creation of a mental picture
  for future reference. The coach should not
  overload the learner with verbal information but
  allow then to observe the demonstration several
  times to create a clear image. They may also be
  encouraged to picture the movement, a technique
  known as mental rehearsal.
• 3. Motor Reproduction - the learner must have
  the physical ability and confidence to copy,
  attempt and complete the skill either immediately
  or after a series of progressive practice
  sessions.
• 4. Motivation - the learner must have the drive
  and desire to copy the actions of the model. This
  is often based on the successful completion of
  the skill, its importance, the reinforcement
  received from others and the perceived status of
  the model.
• Conclusion
• Each theory has it s advantages and
  disadvantages. Often within a lesson or training
  session, a combination may be the most suitable
  depending on the ability and motivation of the
  participants, the situational factors