Chapter 8 THINKING AND LANGUAGE

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Chapter 8THINKING AND LANGUAGE

• Section 1 What Is Thinking?
• Section 2 Problem Solving
• Section 3 Reasoning
• Section 4 Decision Making and Judgment
• Section 5 Language

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Thinking is

• 1. thinking is the mental activity that is
  involved in the understanding, processing, and
  communicating of information. Made possible
  through the use of symbols, concepts, and
  prototypes.

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Question What are the three units of thought?
Section 1 What Is Thinking?

• THREE UNITS OF THOUGHT
• SYMBOLS objects or acts that stand for
  something else
• CONCEPTS mentally grouping together objects,
  events, or ideas that have similar
  characteristics such as dogs, horses, etc.
• PROTOTYPES examples of concepts that best
  exemplify that concept

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How do we solve problems?

• 2. algorithms a specific procedure that, when
  used properly and in the right circumstances,
  will always lead to the solution of a problem.
  Ex formulas.
• 3. heuristics rules of thumb that often, but not
  always, help us find the solution to a problem.
  They are shortcuts. Ex C_ _ FF (cliff)

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• 4. incubation effect When we arrive at the
  solution to a problem when we have not been
  consciously working on the problem. Ex taking a
  break from math problem then suddenly coming up
  with the solution.
• 5. mental set the tendency to respond to a new
  problem with an approach that was successfully
  used with similar problems. Can sometimes solve a
  problem, can sometimes cause a problem.
• 6. functional fixedness is the tendency to
  think of an object as being useful only for the
  function that the object is usually used for.

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• 7. convergent thinking though is limited to
  available facts, one tries to narrow thinking to
  find the single best solution.
• 8. divergent thinking one associates more freely
  to the various elements of a problem. One follows
  leads that run in various directions perhaps one
  that will lead to the solution unexpectedly.

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Question What steps can be used to solve
problems?
Section 2 Problem Solving

• THE ABCDEs OF PROBLEM SOLVING
• Assess the problem
• Brainstorm approaches to the problem
• Choose the approach that seems most likely to
  work
• Do it try the most likely approach
• Evaluate the results

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Question How do deductive reasoning and
inductive reasoning differ?
Section 3 Reasoning

• DEDUCTIVE AND INDUCTIVE REASONING DIFFER
• 9. Deductive Reasoning a conclusion is arrived
  at by reasoning from a general principle to a
  specific conclusion
• 10. Inductive Reasoning a conclusion is arrived
  at by reasoning from many specific observations
  to a general principle
• 11. confirmation bias tendency to prove, or
  confirm, ones hypothesis rather than disprove
  it.

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Question What strategies can be made in decision
making?
Section 4 Decision Making and Judgment

• STRATEGIES IN DECISION MAKING
• Weighing the Pluses and Minuses choosing among
  goals or courses of action to reach goals by
  using a balance sheet
• Shortcuts in Decision Making and Judgment use
  heuristics or shortcuts
• The Framing Effect refers to a way in which
  wording affects decision making

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Question What strategies can be made in decision
making?
Section 4 Decision Making and Judgment

• HEURISTICS OR SHORTCUTS
• Representativeness Heuristic making decisions
  about a sample according to the population that
  the sample appears to represent
• Availability Heuristic making a decision on the
  basis of information that is available in the
  immediate consciousness
• Anchoring Heuristic making a decision based on
  certain ideas or standards that a person holds
  and which hold an anchor for the person

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Question What are the basic elements of language?
Section 5 Language

• BASIC ELEMENTS OF LANGUAGE
• Phonemes basic sounds of a language
• Morphemes units of meaning in language
• Syntax way in which words are arranged to make
  phrases and sentences

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Question What are the three units of thought?