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CHAPTER 1 Chemistry Matter and Measurement
Chemistry Study of the Composition, Properties
an Transformations of Matter The approach to
chemistry is a simple one look around you and try
to think of logical explanations for what you see
happening. Chemistry and The Elements Element
A substance that cannot be separated into simpler
substances by chemical means Elements and The
Periodic Table History of Periodic Table More
than half of the elements known today were found
between 1800-1900 Groups Vertical Columns
Periods Horizontal Rows Alkali Metals 1A
Alkali Earth Metals Group 2A Halogens Group
7A Noble Gases Group 8A Transition Metals Fe,
Cu, Zn, Au, etc.. Chemical Properties of the
Elements Intensive Properties A property whose
value does not depend on the sample size Ex
Temperature or Melting Point Extensive Property
A property whose value depends on the sample
size Ex Length and Volume Physical Properties
A characteristic that can de determined without
changing the chemical makeup of a sample Ex
Melting point of Ice Chemical Properties A
characteristic that results in a change in the
chemical makeup of a sample Ex Wood burning
Physical and Chemical Properties of the Periodic
Table Experimentation and Measurement Scientific
Notation large or small numbers are written as a
number between 1 and 10 times a power of 10 Ex
55,000 SN 5.5x104 International System of Units
for Measurement Measuring Mass Mass The amount
of matter in an object Matter A term used to
describe anything that has mass Kilogram, Gram,
Milligram, Microgram Measuring Length Meter
The standard unit of length in the SI system
Centimeter, Millimeter, Micrometer, Nanometer,
Picometer Measuring Temperature Celsius A
common unit of Temperature 0C 273.15K
Kelvin The SI unit of temperature 0K absolute
zero Derived Units Measuring Volume Density
Accuracy, Precision and Significant Figures in
Measurement Accuracy How close to the true
value a given measurement is Precision How
well independent measurements agree with one
another Rounding Numbers To remove
non-significant numbers from an answer
Calculations Converting from One Unit to
Another
CHE 111 Concept Review
CHAPTER 8 Thermochemistry Chemical
Energy Energy Energy is capacity to supply heat
or do work Thermochemistry is absorption or
release of heat that accompanies chemical
reactions. Kinetic Energy (EK) is the energy of
motion. EK ½ mv2 Potential Energy (Ep) is
stored energy Joule is the SI unit of energy (J
kgm2s-2) Energy Changes and Energy
Conservation First Law of Thermodynamics The
total internal energy of an isolated system is
constant. corrollary Conservation of Energy
Law Energy cannot be created or destroyed it
can only be converted from one form to
another. Temperature thermal energy kinetic
energy of molecular motion Heat thermal energy
transferred from one object to another Chemcial
energy chemical bonds act as the storage
medium Internal Energy and State Functions E
internal energy of a system in a reaction, ?E
Efinal Einitial State function A function or
property whose value depends only on the present
state of the system, not on the path used to
arrive at that state (e.g. pressure, volume, and
temperature are state functions work and heat
are not) Expansion Work Work force x distance
(w F x d) work during an expansion (w
-P?V) Energy and Enthalpy Transferred heat (qp)
?E P?V ?H (energy change work at constant
pressure) Enthalpy change (?H) heat of
reaction ?H Hfinal Hinitial Hproducts
Hreactants The Thermodynamic Standard State Most
stable form of a substance at 1 atm pressure and
temperature, usually 25 oC 1 M concentration
for all substances in solution. Standard Enthalpy
of Reaction Enthalpy change under standard
conditions Enthalpies of Physical and Chemical
Change Enthalpy of Physical Change (fusion,
vaporization, sublimation) Enthalpy of Chemical
Change Heat of reaction endothermic ?H gt 0
exothermic ?H lt 0 Calorimetry and Heat
Capacity Heat capacity (C) q / ?T q (Cm) x
(Moles of substance) x ?T where Cm is molar heat
capacity Hesss Law The overall enthalpy change
for a reaction is equal to the sum of the
enthalpy changes for the individual steps in the
reaction. Standard Heat of Formation The
enthalpy change ?Hf for formation of 1 mol in its
standard state from constituent elements in their
standard states. For the reaction aA bB
gt cC dD Hreaction c ?Hf(C) d
?Hf(D) a ?Hf(A) b ?Hf(B) Bond
Dissociation Energies ?Ho D (bonds broken) D
(bonds made), where D bond dissociation
energy Fossil Fuels, Fuel Efficiency, and Heats
of Combustion Heat of combustion (combustion
enthalpy) ?Hoc Introduction to Entropy Entropy
(S) is the amount of molecular randomness in a
system (unit is J/K). ?S Sfinal
Sinitial Spontaneous process favored by negative
?H by positive ?S Non-spontaneous process
favored by positive ?H by negative
?S Introduction to Free Energy Gibbs free
energy ?G ?H T?S ?G lt 0 is spontaneous ?G
0 is in equilibrium ?G gt 0 is non-spontaneous
CHAPTER 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions Conversion
of Mass and the Law of Definite Proportions Mass
neither created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions Pure substances always same proportion
of elements by mass Daltons Atomic Theory and
the Law of Multiple Proportions Elements are
composed of atoms Atoms of same element have
same mass Atoms combine together in small
whole-number ratios Chemical reactions change the
way atoms combine, but atoms themselves remain
unchanged. The Structure of Atoms
Electrons J.J.Thompson (1897) All elements
contain electrons which have a Charge/Mass ratio
2x108 C/g Milliken (1909) Oil drop experiment
gives charge on an electron (2x10-19C), so mass
of an electron estimated at 9x10-28g The
Structure of Atoms Protons and
Neutrons Rutherford (1911) shows atoms have very
small nucleus containing the protons and neutrons
which are much heavier than electrons. Atomic
Number (Z) Atomic Mass (A) Elements differ by
the number of protons Atomic mass (A)
protons neutrons Isotopes same of protons
and different of neutrons Atomic mass is
weighted average of all naturally occurring
isotopes. Compounds and Mixtures Chemical
Compound pure substance with two or more
elements combined in specific way to create a new
material with new properties. Mixture Blends of
two or more substances in arbitrary proportion
without chemically changing the substances
themselves. Molecules, Ions, and Chemical
Bonds Covalent Bond two atoms bound together by
sharing electrons Structural Formula shows
specific connections between atoms Ionic Bond
two atoms bound together by transfer of electrons
from one atom to the other. Cation ion with
positive charge Anion ion with negative charge
Polyatomic ions covalently bonded groups of
atoms with an overall charge Ionic solid rather
than ionic molecule Acids and Bases Acid provides
H ions when dissolved in water Base provides
OH- ions when dissolved in water. Ex. Acid
HCl(s) gt H(aq) Cl-(aq) Base NaOH(s) gt
Na(aq) OH-(aq) Naming Chemical
Compounds Binary ionic compounds list cation
first, anion second Charge is shown as
superscript in formula (e.g. Fe2) and Roman
numerals in description (e.g. Iron(II)).
CHAPTER 9 Gases Their Properties and
Behavior Gases and Gas Pressure Physical
Characteristic of gases Assume the volume and
shape of their containers the most compressible
of the states of matter will mix evenly and
completely when confined to the same container
have much lower densities than liquids and
solids Pressure is defined as a force (F)
exerted per unit area (A) Gases exert pressure
on any surface with which they come into contact
with, because gas molecules are constantly in
motion Atmospheric Pressure the pressure
exerted by Earths atmosphere Barometer
instrument for measuring atmospheric pressure
Standard Atmospheric Pressure (1 atm) the
pressure that supports a column of mercury
exactly 760 nm high at OºC at sea level The Gas
Laws Boyles Law at constant temperature, the
volume (V) of a gas decreases as the pressure (P)
decreases PV k P1V1 P2V2 Charles Law The
volume of a ideal gas at a constant pressure
varies directly with its absolute temperature.
V/T k Avogadros Law The volume of an ideal
gas varies directly with its molar amount. V kn
when T an P are held constant The Ideal Gas
Law Volume of a gas is affected by changes in
pressure, temperature, and amount PV
nRT Standard Temperature and Pressure 0ºC and 1
atm Daltons Law of Partial Pressures Total
pressure exerted by a mixture of gases in a
container at constant V and T are equal to the
sum of the pressures exerted by each individual
gas in the container PTotal PA PB PC
Kinetic Molecular Theory A gas consists of tiny
particles moving at random volume of the gas
particles is negligible compared with the total
volume there are no forces between particles,
either attractive or repulsive collisions of gas
particles are elastic average kinetic energy of
gas particles is proportioned to their absolute
temperature
CHAPTER 3 Formulas, Equations, and
Moles Balancing Equations A chemical equation
in which the numbers and kinds of atoms are the
same on both sides Avogradros Number and the
Mole Molecular Mass Masses of all atoms in
molecule Formula Mass Masses of all atoms in
formula unit of any compound, molecular or ionic
Mole SI unit for amount of substance quantity
of molecules or formula units equal to atoms in
exactly 12.0000 g of Carbon 12. Molar Mass Mass
of 1 mole of substance Avogadros Number number
of units in a mole (6.022x1023) Stoichiometry
Chemical Arithmetic Mole/mass relationships
between reactants and products Yields of
Chemical Reactions Reactions with Limiting
Amounts of Reactants Limiting Reactant Reactant
present in limiting amount, controling the extent
to which a reaction occurs Excess Reactant
Reactant left over after the reaction has been
run Concentrations of Reactants in Solution
Molarity Molarity The number of moles dissolved
in each liter of solution Molarity Moles of
Solute/ Liters of Solute (L) Diluting
Concentrated Solutions Solution
Stoichiometry Titration Determining
concentration of a solution by allowing a
carefully measured volume to react with
a solution of another substance whose
concentration is known. Percent Composition and
Empirical Formulas A list of elements present in
a compound and the mass percent of each A
formula that gives the ratio of atoms in a
chemical compound Determining Empirical
Formulas Elemental Analysis
CHAPTER 6 Ionic bonds Main-Group
Chemistry Ions and Their Electron
Configurations Aufbau Principal Electrons leave
highest-energy filled orbit, add to lowest-energy
unfilled orbit Many common main-group ions have
noble gas configurations Transition elements
fill s and then d orbitals, but lose s electrons
first Ionic Radii Cationic radii smaller than
neutral atom Electrons leave largest
valence-shell orbitals and increased Effective
Nuclear Charge (Zeff) from electron shielding of
outer electrons by inner electrons Ionization
Energy (Ei) Periodic trends tied to electron
configurations Energy increases across the
period and decreases down the groups Impact of
half-filled orbitals can be seen within broader
trends Higher Ionization Energies Filled
shells require much more energy for ionization
than partially filled shells Electron Affinity
(Eea) The energy released by adding an electron
to an atom in the gas state Periodic trends tied
to electron configuration net of attraction to
nucleus and electron-electron repulsions.
Halogens have highest energy change. Ionic Bonds
and the Formation of Ionic Solids Born-Haber
cycle to calculate overall energy change for net
process. Lattice Energies of Ionic Solids (U
energy to break an ionic solid) Coulombs Law
F k (z1z2) /d2 (F force of interaction of
electric charges) The Octet Rule Main-group
elements tend to undergo reactions that leave
them with eight outer shell electrons (s and p
orbitals) Chemistry of the Group 1 (1A) Elements
Alkali Metals Li, Na, K, Ru, Cs, Fr Very
reactive ns1 electronic config gt 1 ions low
ionization energy powerful reducing agent
metallic soft low melting point low density.
Chemistry of the Group 2 (2A) Elements Alkaline
Earth Metals Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra Reactive
ns2 electronic config gt 2 ions low ionization
energy powerful reducing agent metallic soft
medium melting points/densities Chemistry of the
Group 13 (3A) Elements B, Al, Ga, In,
Tl Reducing agents ns2np1 electronic
configuration gt 3 ions Boron is semi-metal,
rest are metals with good conductance Chemistry
of the Group 17 (7A) Elements Halogens F, Cl,
Br, I, At Very reactive non-metals ns2np5
electronic configuration gt -1 ions powerful
reducing agent. Chemistry of the Group 18 (8A)
Elements Noble Gases He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe,
Rn Non-reactive ns2np6 electronic configuration
gt hard to ionize colorless, odorless, gases.
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CHAPTER 10 Liquids, Solids, and Phase
Changes Polar Covalent Bonds and Dipole
Moments Dipole moment µ Q x r where Q is charge
and r is distance Debyes 1D 3.336 x 10-30 C
m (Coulomb meters) Intermolecular Forces (van der
Waals forces) Ion dipole forces (E zµ / r2)
Dipole dipole forces between two polar
molecules London dispersion forces from momentary
unsymmetrical dipole distortions Hydrogen
bonds Some Properties of Liquids Viscosity and
surface tension Phase Changes Fusion freezing
vaporization condensation sublimation
deposition All involve a free-energy change (?G
?H T?S) At equilibrium, ?G ?H T?S 0
or T ?H / ?S Evaporation, Vapor Pressure, and
Boiling Point Clausius-Clapeyron equation Pvap
( - Hvap / R ) (1/T) C where Hvap heat of
vap, R gas constant, C constant of substance
Kinds of Solids Crystalline ionic molecular
covalent network metallic Amorphous randomly
arranged with no ordered long-range
structure Probing the Structure of Solids X-Ray
Crystallography Diffraction is due to
interference between two waves passing through
same space at same time Bragg equation d n? /
2 sin ? Unit Cells and the Packing of Spheres in
Crystalline Solids Simple cubic packing uses a
primitive-cubic unit cell Body-centered cubic
packing uses a body-centered cubic unit
cell Cubic closest packing uses a face-centered
cubic unit cell Hexagonal closest packing uses a
non-cubic unit cell Structures of Some Ionic
Solids Some Covalent Network Solids Phase
Diagrams Triple point unique combination of
pressure and temperature where all three phases
exist in equilibrium Critical point Tc is
temperature at which gas can no longer be
liquefied, regardless of the pressure.
Supercritical fluids exist above Tc
CHAPTER 4 Reactions in Aqueous Solution Some
Ways That Chemical Reactions Occur Precipitation
soluble reactants yield insoluble products
Acid-base neutralization acid base gt water
salt Oxidation-reduction one or more electrons
are transferred between reactants Electrolytes in
Aqueous Solution Electrolytes dissociate to
produce a solution of electrically conducting
ions, Ex. NaCl(s) gt Na(aq) Cl-(aq) Strong
dissociate to a large extent (gt70) Weak
dissociate to small extent (lt70) Aqueous
Reactions and Net Ionic Equations Spectator ions
balance the charge but dont participate in
changes Precipitation Reactions and Solubility
Guidelines Acids, Bases, and Neutralization
Reactions Strong Acids and Bases highly
dissociate in solution Weak do
not. Oxidation-Reduction (Redox)
Reactions Oxidation loss of one or more
electrons Reduction gain of one or more
electrons Oxidation number neutral vs.
electron-rich (negative) vs. electron-poor
(positive) Identifying Redox Reactions Reducing
agent Causes reduction loses electron(s)
undergoes oxidation A gt A e-
(electron) Oxidizing agent Causes oxidation
gains electron(s) undergoes reduction B
e- (electron) gt B- Reactivity trends on the
Periodic Table Balancing Redox Reactions The
Oxidation-Number Method The Half-Reaction
Method Redox Titrations
CHAPTER 7 Covalent Bonds and Molecular
Structure The Covalent Bond Covalent Bond Two
electrons are shared by two atoms Covalent
Compounds contain only covalent bonds Ex H-H,
F-F, H-Cl, H-F, H-O-H Octet Rule An atom other
than hydrogen tends to form bonds until it is
surrounded by eight valence electrons Single
Bond Two atoms are held together by one electron
pair Double Bonds Two atoms are held together
by two electron pairs Triple Bonds Two atoms
are held together by three electron pairs Bond
length Distance between nuclei of two covalently
bonded atoms in a molecule Strengths of
Covalent Bonds Electronegativity Polar Covalent
Bond The electrons spend more time in the
vicinity of one atom than the other
Electronegativity The ability of an atom to
attract toward itself the electrons in a chemical
bond. Elements with a higher electronegativity
have a greater tendency to attract than do
elements with low electronegativity
Electronegativity increases across a period and
decreases down a group Two types of attractive
forces in covalent compounds Force that holds the
atoms together in a molecule Measured in bond
energy Intermolecular Forces relatively weak
forces holding molecules together Electron Dot
Structures and Resonance Resonance Hybrid An
average of several valid electron dot structures
for a molecule Formal Charge Formal Charge (
Valence Electrons in free atom) (½ Bonding
electrons) ( of nonbonding electrons) Molecular
Shape The VSEPR Model (Valence-Shell
Electron-Pair Repulsion) predicts the shape of a
molecule Valence Bond Theory quantum mechanical
description of bonding as the overlap of two
singly occupied atomic orbitals Molecular
Orbital Theory Quantum mechanical description
of bonding in which electrons occupy molecular
orbitals that belong to the entire molecule
rather than to an individual atom. Bonding MO
Lower in energy than the starting orbitals
Antibonding MO Higher in energy than the
starting atomic orbitals
CHAPTER 11 Solutions and Their
Properties Solutions A homogeneous mixture
containing particles the size of a typical ion or
covalent molecule Solute The dissolved
substance Solvent the liquid the solute is
dissolved in Energy Changes and The Solution
Process Enthalpy of Solution (?Hsoln) Enthalpy
change Entropy of Solution (?Ssoln) entropy
change Solvent-Solvent Interactions Energy is
required (positive ?H) to overcome intermolecular
forces between solvent molecules and because the
molecules must be separated and pushed apart to
make room for solute particles Solute-Solute
Interactions Energy is required (positive ?H) to
overcome intermolecular forces holding solute
particles together in a crystal Solvent-Solute
Interactions Energy is released (negative
?H)when solvent molecules cluster around solute
particles and solvate them. Units of
Concentration Factors Affecting
Solubility Temperature Solubility Henrys Law
The solubility of a gas in a liquid at a given
temperature is proportional to the partial
pressure of the gas over the solution
Colligative Properties Properties that depend on
the amount of a dissolved solute but not on its
chemical identity. Ex The vapor pressure of
the solution is lower The boiling point is
higher Raoults Law The vapor pressure of a
solution containing a nonvolatile solution is
equal to the vapor pressure of the pure solvent
times the mole fraction of the solvent Boiling
Point Elevation ?Tb Kb m Freezing Point
Depression ?Tf Kf m
CHAPTER 5 Periodicity and Atomic Structure
Development of the Periodic Table Dmitri
Mendeleev created the periodic table in 1869
Light and the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic Energy Visible light, infrared
radiation, microwaves, radio waves, X rays, and
other forms of radiant energy Electromagnetic
energy is characterized by a frequency, a
wavelength, and an amplitude. Frequency The
number of wave maxima that pass by a fixed point
per unit of time Hertz 1 Hz 1s-1 Wavelength
The length of a wave from one maximum to the
next Wavelength ? Amplitude A waves height
measured from the midpoint between peak and
trough Electromagnetic Energy and Atomic Line
Spectra Line Spectra The wavelengths of light
emitted by an energetically excited atom
Particlelike Properties of Electromagnetic
Energy Quantum smallest possible amount of
radiant energy Wavelike Properties of
Matter deBroglie Equations ? h / mv Quantum
Mechanics and the Heisenberg Uncertainty
Principle Quantum Mechanical Model A model of
atomic structure that concentrates on an
electrons wavelike properties Heisenberg's
Uncertainty Principle The position and the
velocity of an electron can never be both known
beyond a certain level of precision Wave
Functions and Quantum Numbers Wave Functions
(orbitals) a solution to the Schrodinger
equation Principle Quantum Number (n) the
variable on which the size and energy level of an
orbital primarily depends Angular-momentum
Quantum Number (l) the variable that gives the
three-dimensional shape of an orbital Magnetic
Quantum Number (nl) the variable that defines
that spatial orientation of the orbital with
respect to a standard set of coordinate
axes. Shapes of Orbitals S Orbital spherical P
Orbital Dumbbell-shaped d and f Orbitals
Cloverleaf shaped Electron Spin and the Pauli
Exclusion Principle Spin Quantum Number (ms) a
variable that describes the spin on the electron,
either 1/2 or -1/2 Pauli Exclusion Principle
No two electrons in an atom can have the same
four quantum numbers
Poster created by Tracy Willmann and Scott Grigg
Nov, 07 Based on 2008 , 5th edition of McMurray
Fay text. CHE701 Computers in Chemical
Education, Dr. D. Tofan