Epitemology for Teachers

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Understanding How We Know What We Know An
Exploration of Epistemologies

• Presentation by
• Dr.K.Prabhakar

Presenter Notes
This presentation is from -https//www.exploring-e
conomics.org/en/orientation/- Please do visit and
contribute to the cause of Exploring economics.

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Dedicated to Paulo Freire (19211997)

• Paulo Freire was one of the most influential
  philosophers of education of the twentieth
  century. He worked wholeheartedly to help people
  both through his philosophy and his practice of
  critical pedagogy. A native of Brazil, Freires
  goal was to eradicate illiteracy among people
  from previously colonized countries and
  continents. His insights were rooted in the
  social and political realities of the children
  and grandchildren of former slaves. His ideas,
  life, and work served to ameliorate the living
  conditions of oppressed people.
• This article examines key events in Freires
  life, as well as his ideas regarding pedagogy and
  political philosophy. In particular, it examines
  conscientização, critical pedagogy, Freires
  criticism of the banking model of education, and
  the process of internalization of ones
  oppressors. As a humanist, Freire defended the
  theses that (a) it is every persons ontological
  vocation to become more human (b) both the
  oppressor and the oppressed are diminished in
  their humanity when their relationship is
  characterized by oppressive dynamics (c) through
  the process of conscientização, the oppressors
  and oppressed can come to understand their own
  power and (d) ultimately the oppressed will be
  able to authentically change their circumstances
  only if their intentions and actions are
  consistent with their goal. (https//iep.utm.edu/f
  reire/ )

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The concepts that I, as a teacher, used but did
not fully understand until I ventured into
epistemology

• Student Centric learning
• Inclusive learning
• Critical thinking

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What is the role of epistemology for teachers,
and what questions do I wish to answer in this
discussion?

• What is student centric learning?
• Eighty five percent of Indians are considered as
  functional illiterates?
• Is it different from what is being practiced for
  centuries?
• It is to promote critical thinking What to think
  and how to think?
• Now question is how to promote critical thinking?
  
• How individual student need to be taken through
  the path of learning?
• What are rubrics and how to prepare them for each
  course?

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What is not?

• Student Centric learning is not just making
  everyone talk or just be noisy in the class or
  asking what is your opinion, or just asking
  questions in the class or just CP in class.
• Inclusive learning not just admitting students
  with disabilities or providing ramps.
• Critical thinking- Thinking beyond the syllabus.
  Syllabus is greatest hurdle for you.

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Pedagogy

• Pedagogy (/'p?d?g?d?i, -go?d?i, -g?gi/), most
  commonly understood as the approach to teaching,
  is the theory and practice of learning, and how
  this process influences, and is influenced by,
  the social, political, and psychological
  development of learners. Pedagogy, taken as an
  academic discipline, is the study of how
  knowledge and skills are imparted in an
  educational context, and it considers the
  interactions that take place during learning.
  Both the theory and practice of pedagogy vary
  greatly as they reflect different social,
  political, and cultural contexts.
• Pedagogy is often described as the act of
  teaching. The pedagogy adopted by teachers shapes
  their actions, judgments, and teaching strategies
  by taking into consideration theories of
  learning, understandings of students and their
  needs, and the backgrounds and interests of
  individual students. Its aims may range from
  furthering liberal education (the general
  development of human potential) to the narrower
  specifics of vocational education (the imparting
  and acquisition of specific skills). Conventional
  western pedagogies view the teacher as knowledge
  holder and student as the recipient of knowledge
  (described by Paulo Freire as "banking methods"),
  but theories of pedagogy increasingly identify
  the student as an agent and the teacher as a
  facilitator.
• Instructive strategies are governed by the
  pupil's background knowledge and experience,
  situation and environment, as well as learning
  goals set by the student and teacher. One example
  would be the Socratic method. (Wikiwand)

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Pedagogy

• The term 'Pedagogy,' refers to the strategy of
  how educators teach, in practice and theory.
  Pedagogy is shaped by the teaching beliefs of a
  teacher and relates the interplay between culture
  and a variety of methods of teaching.
• Pedagogy relates to the study of teaching
  strategies and how they influence students.
• A thoughtfully considered and effective pedagogy
  is crucial for helping students to learn more
  successfully and in helping them develop
  high-order thinking skills.
• Flip learning presents unique challenges and
  opportunities for educators, and a strong
  pedagogy is essential for ensuring that students
  can learn effectively through online learning.
• This may include the use of age-appropriate
  teaching strategies and materials, as well as an
  understanding of the stages of child development
  and how these can affect learning.

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How does pedagogy affect the learning process?

• The most effective pedagogies encompass a range
  of teaching techniques, including a detailed
  guide for teachers, structured and whole-class
  group work, guided learning, assessment practice
  and individual activity.
• These pedagogies focus on improving higher-order
  thinking and meta-cognition and make good use of
  questioning and dialogue in doing so. At
  Structural Learning, we try to steer away from
  teaching fads such as learning styles (it was
  once thought that children should be labelled a
  visual learner, a kinesthetic learner or an aural
  learner).

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Epistemology is theory of knowledge

• Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that
  studies the nature, origin, and scope of
  knowledge, as well as the relationship between
  the mind and reality. It's also known as the
  theory of knowledge, and the term comes from the
  Greek words episteme ("knowledge") and logos
  ("reason").

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Why Epistemology for teachers?

• One popular pedagogy for teaching is
  Constructivist pedagogy, which emphasizes the
  importance of active learning and student
  engagement in the learning process. This approach
  emphasizes the idea that knowledge is constructed
  by the learner, rather than simply being
  transmitted by the teacher.
• Learning is social and collaborative. Students
  learn best by working together with others to
  share ideas and solve problems.
• Knowledge is constructed, not transmitted.
  Teachers act as facilitators of learning, rather
  than simply transmitters of information.
• Assessment is focused on understanding. Teachers
  assess student learning by looking for evidence
  of understanding, not just memorization.

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Higher-order thinking refers to the complex
cognitive skills and mental processes

• They go beyond simple memorization and recall of
  information. It involves the ability to analyze,
  synthesize, evaluate, and create new knowledge or
  solutions.
• Higher-order thinking skills are essential for
  solving complex problems, making well-reasoned
  decisions, and promoting critical and creative
  thinking.

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Metacognitive knowledge

• This refers to the understanding and knowledge
  about one's own cognitive processes. It includes
  knowledge about oneself as a learner (strengths,
  weaknesses, preferences), knowledge about
  different tasks and strategies, and knowledge
  about when and why to use particular strategies.
• Metacognitive regulation This involves actively
  monitoring and regulating one's cognitive
  processes while engaged in a task. It includes
  processes such as planning, monitoring progress,
  evaluating outcomes, and making adjustments as
  needed.
• Self-monitoring Metacognition involves the
  ability to monitor one's level of understanding
  and task performance. This allows individuals to
  recognize when they are having difficulties and
  need to adjust their approach or seek additional
  information or support.
• Self-reflection Metacognition involves
  reflecting on one's thinking processes,
  strategies, and outcomes. This reflection can
  lead to insights about how to improve and become
  a more effective learner or problem-solver.

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System Thinking

• System thinking involves identifying the
  relationships and interdependencies between the
  various elements that make up a system. It
  recognizes that each component is connected to
  and affects the behavior of the whole system.
• Seeing wholes Rather than breaking things down
  into smaller parts, system thinking emphasizes
  looking at the entire system as a unified whole.
  This allows for a better understanding of how the
  system functions as an integrated entity.
• Exploring perspectives System thinking
  encourages considering multiple perspectives and
  viewpoints when analyzing a system. It recognizes
  that different stakeholders may have different
  interests, goals, and perceptions of the system.
• Understanding complexity Systems can be complex,
  with non-linear relationships, feedback loops,
  and emergent properties that arise from the
  interactions between components.
• System thinking helps in understanding and
  managing this complexity. Identifying patterns
  and behaviors System thinking involves
  identifying recurring patterns and behaviors
  within a system, as well as understanding how
  these patterns emerge from the structure and
  interactions of the system components.
  Anticipating consequences By considering the
  interconnections and feedback loops within a
  system, system thinking allows for better
  anticipation of the potential consequences of
  actions or changes within the system.

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Critical Thinking

• Rationality Critical thinking involves using
  reason and logic to analyze information
  objectively and draw well-justified conclusions,
  rather than relying on emotions or anecdotal
  evidence.
• Self-awareness It requires an awareness of one's
  own biases, assumptions, and preconceptions, and
  a willingness to challenge them and consider
  alternative perspectives.
• Open-mindedness Critical thinkers approach
  issues with an open mind, consider diverse
  viewpoints, and are willing to change their
  stance when presented with compelling evidence.
• Evidence-based decision making Critical thinking
  relies on evaluating the validity, reliability,
  and relevance of information and using it to
  support or refute arguments and conclusions.
• Questioning It involves asking probing
  questions, challenging assumptions, and seeking
  clarification to gain a deeper understanding of
  issues.

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What is inclusion?

• The aim of inclusion is to ensure that all
  students, including those with disabilities and
  other differences in learning, experience an
  equitable access to education. This means a
  commitment to remove any obstacles that may
  prevent the student from thriving and reaching
  their full potential. Inclusion is based on the
  principles of respect, equity and recognition of
  diversity in society.
• All students benefit when an inclusive
  environment is fostered in the classroom. This
  involves creating a safe and supportive learning
  space where differences are valued, respected,
  and celebrated.

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Summary so far

• Whatever learning environment you are operating
  in, it's good practice to utilize the research
  that is available to us. We all share the same
  goal in enhancing the learning experience of
  children.
• Our focus has always been on developing deep
  learning experiences. This involves unpicking the
  learning process and designing effective teaching
  strategies that really get children thinking.
• Pedagogy plays a crucial role in determining the
  learning outcomes of students. A well-designed
  pedagogical approach can foster critical
  thinking, problem-solving skills, and creativity
  among students.
• On the other hand, a poor pedagogical approach
  can lead to disengagement, boredom, and lack of
  motivation among students.
• Therefore, it is important for educators to
  understand the impact of pedagogy on the learning
  process and to continuously improve their
  teaching methods to ensure positive learning
  outcomes for their students.(Source
  https//www.structural-learning.com/post/pedagogy-
  for-teaching-a-classroom-guide )

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Introduction to Epistemology
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Epistemology

• Epistemology (/??p?st?'m?l?d?i/ ? ih-PISS-t?-MOL-?
  -jee from Ancient Greek ?p?st?µ? (epist?me) 'know
  ledge', and -logy) is the branch of
  philosophy concerned with knowledge.
  Epistemologists study the nature, origin, and
  scope of knowledge, epistemic justification,
  the rationality of belief, and various related
  issues. Debates in contemporary epistemology are
  generally clustered around four core areas
• The philosophical analysis of the nature of
  knowledge and the conditions required for a
  belief to constitute knowledge, such
  as truth and justification
• Potential sources of knowledge and justified
  belief, such as perception, reason, memory,
  and testimony
• The structure of a body of knowledge or justified
  belief, including whether all justified beliefs
  must be derived from justified foundational
  beliefs or whether justification requires only
  a coherent set of beliefs and,
• Philosophical scepticism, which questions the
  possibility of knowledge, and related problems,
  such as whether skepticism poses a threat to our
  ordinary knowledge claims and whether it is
  possible to refute skeptical arguments.
  (Wikiwand)

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Elaboration

• Epistemology aims to answer questions such as
• "What do people know?",
• "What does it mean to say that people know
  something?",
• "What makes justified beliefs justified?", and
• "How do people know that they know?" 
• Specialties in epistemology ask questions such as
  "How can people create formal models about issues
  related to knowledge?" (in formal epistemology),
  "What are the historical conditions of changes in
  different kinds of knowledge?" (in historical
  epistemology), "What are the methods, aims, and
  subject matter of epistemological inquiry?"
  (in metaepistemology), and "How do people know
  together?" (in social epistemology).

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Etymology of the word

• The etymology of the word epistemology is derived
  from the ancient Greek episteme, meaning
  "knowledge, understanding, skill, scientific
  knowledge", and the English suffix -ology,
  meaning "the study or discipline of (what is
  indicated by the first element)". The word
  epistemology first appeared in 1847, in a review
  in New York's Eclectic Magazine The title of one
  of the principal works of Fichte is
  'Wissenschaftslehre,' which, after the analogy of
  technology ... we render epistemology.
• The word was first used to present a philosophy
  in English by Scottish philosopher James
  Frederick Ferrier in 1854. It was the title of
  the first section of his Institutes of
  Metaphysics
• This section of the science is properly termed
  the Epistemologythe doctrine or theory of
  knowing, just as ontology is the science of
  being.... It answers the general question, 'What
  is knowing and the known?'or more shortly, 'What
  is knowledge?'

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Concepts

• The entry "Knowledge How" of the Stanford
  Encyclopedia of Philosophy mentions that
  introductory classes to epistemology often start
  their analysis of knowledge by pointing out three
  different senses of "knowing" something "knowing
  that" (knowing the truth of propositions),
  "knowing how" (understanding how to perform
  certain actions), and "knowing by acquaintance"
  (directly perceiving an object, being familiar
  with it, or otherwise coming into contact with
  it).
• This modern teaching of epistemology is primarily
  concerned with the first of these forms of
  knowledge, propositional knowledge. All three
  senses of "knowing" can be seen in the ordinary
  use of the word. In mathematics, it can be known
  that 2 2 4, but there is also knowing how to
  add two numbers, and knowing a person (e.g.,
  knowing other persons, or knowing oneself), place
  (e.g., one's hometown), thing (e.g., cars), or
  activity (e.g., addition).

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ONTOLOGY

• As a first approximation, ontology is the study
  of "what is. Ontological statements are answers
  to questions of whether something fundamentally
  exists or not (e.g. numbers, institutions, or
  causal relations).
• the most classical ontological question is the
  following "Is there a God?"
• Ontological questions and assumptions are often
  determined prior to empirical research.
• They represent a set of beliefs about the
  nature of the world and to a certain extent
  influence the questions researchers ask, as well
  as the ways in which they do science.

Presenter Notes
Let us consider ONTOLOGY. It is the study of
What is. It answers the questions of whether
something fundamentally exists or not. You need
to find what are existing. The institutions.

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A Priori and A Posteriori

• The terms a priori and a posteriori are used
  primarily to denote the foundations upon which a
  proposition is known.
• A given proposition is knowable a priori if it
  can be known independent of any experience other
  than the experience of learning the language in
  which the proposition is expressed, whereas a
  proposition that is knowable a posteriori is
  known on the basis of experience. For example,
  the proposition that all bachelors are unmarried
  is a priori, and the proposition that it is
  raining outside now is a posteriori.
• The distinction between the two terms is
  epistemological and immediately relates to the
  justification for why a given item of knowledge
  is held. For instance, a person who knows (a
  priori) that All bachelors are unmarried need
  not have experienced the unmarried status of
  allor indeed anybachelors to justify this
  proposition.
• By contrast, if I know that It is raining
  outside, knowledge of this proposition must be
  justified by appealing to someones experience of
  the weather.

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Conceptual Clarity

• Numbers
• Institutions or organizations
• Causal relationships.

Presenter Notes
1.We will spend one hour on what are numbers or
projections? In quantitative analysis we study
projections.

2. Institutions.

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How we study Economics?Take the test.
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Which problems are central to Economy?
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Central Problem or Problems addressed by
economy SCDU

• Scarcity Natural resources like land, capital,
  labour, and energy are scarce and therefore the
  economic problem lies in the processes of
  their distribution.
• Change Economic organizations are constantly
  evolving, the dynamics of this process are the
  distinctive aspect of economics.
• Dominance Power and domination of one group over
  another in material as well as social terms is
  the driving force of economic phenomena.
• Uncertainty The future is uncertain and our
  knowledge about it is fallible. Therefore, the
  beliefs we hold about the future in order to deal
  with uncertainty, and changes in these beliefs,
  are the central determinant of the economy.
• These problems give rise to Volatility,
  Uncertainty, Complexity and Ambiguity.

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Knowing this what kind of economics you will
generate?

• Please write in a paper and submit to the
  coordinator.

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Where do we start? The Map of Things
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Things

• The "things" analysed range from the small
  (individuals) to the very large (systems). That
  does not mean that a systemic perspective denies
  the existence of individuals, but that according
  to such a perspective systems are more important
  when it comes to the economy.
• Micro Individuals and their motivations,
  relations, and actions.
• Meso Groups and organisations (or institutions
  such as embedded social norms) like firms,
  sectors, specific markets, as well as subsystems
  like the financial system.
• Macro Systems and structures like the
  environment or capitalism.

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Individual and Economy
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Do things have independence from the surrounding?
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Atomist-Middle-Contexual

• Atomist Things like individuals, groups or
  institutions have an independent existence. Their
  motivations and beliefs come from within
  themselves and their identity and essence does
  not change due to environmental alterations.
• Middle Actors exist as independent entities. Yet
  there are mechanisms at higher levels, like
  context, which influence these actors. An
  abstract analysis therefore has to respect both
  individual essences and those contextual
  elements, which can be identified as crucial.
• Contextual Things are always relational and
  interdependent, therefore there is no way to
  conceive of them as independent of their context,
  since without the interactions with the structure
  and other actors in which they exist they would
  be fundamentally different

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How do we consider time?

• This question asks whether it is more appropriate
  to conceive time in terms of states (e.g. time 1,
  time 2, ) and then compare and relate them or
  whether time is a continuous process, which is
  not reversible and where there is constant change
  and no convergence to a fixed point.

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Static-Middle-Dynamic

• Static-Middle-Dynamic

• Static Time is a succession of states, which can
  be identified.
• Middle Both static and procedural elements are
  present in time.
• Dynamic It is of primary importance to think in
  a procedural way, things are constantly changing
  and evolving in time.

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Epistemology

• Epistemology is the study of knowledge and
  justified belief.
• It is concerned with questions like
• What are the necessary and sufficient conditions
  of knowledge?
• What are its sources?
• What is its structure, and what are its limits?
• It addresses what we can know and how we can
  arrive at knowledge.
• The way in which researchers answer these and
  other epistemological questions determines which
  assumptions they make regarding the nature of
  their knowledge claims about the world and the
  confidence they assign to these statements.

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Realism -Constructivist

• Realism there is a real world independent of
  human conceptions and we can observe it. This
  definition of realism differs from the
  realism-instrumentalism dichotomy regarding
  assumptions that have been debated in economics
  following Milton Friedman's 1953 Essays in
  Positive Economics.
• Middle There is a real world, but also a
  discursive world. It is the latter in
  which scientific access to the real world takes
  place. The relationship between the two is
  interdependent and complex.
• Constructivist What we can observe and talk
  about in the (social) sciences are only
  interpretations produced by ourselves. These
  interpretations give meaning and thereby create
  the world. Hence, the task of science is to
  understand those realms of meaning.

Presenter Notes
A discursive passage is a piece of writing that
presents an argument or point of view on a topic
by analyzing and interpreting information in a
structured and logical way. It may include
opinions, feedback, thoughts, or comments. The
purpose of a discursive passage is to persuade
the reader to accept the writer's point of view.

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How you are going to drive your research or your
pedagogical plan ?

• This question is concerned with whether a
  perspective wants to apply a generalized
  theoretical framework on many or all aspects of
  the economy or whether a specific issue or
  phenomena is considered to be very important and
  thus has to be analysed in depth while using
  different frameworks and theories.
• Perspective Driven a way of thinking about
  economic interactions (e.g. in terms of
  incentives, equilibria or relations of
  production) is deemed to be a good way of getting
  insights about different objects. It is assumed
  that this particular way of thinking is capable
  of yielding valuable insights about all kinds of
  economic and social phenomena.
• Contested  Both tendencies are present. A
  particular object is of interest but a certain
  way of thinking is thought to be useful as well.
  There is a degree of conflict between those who
  try to move the perspective (or the discipline as
  a whole) to one of the two categories.
• Object Driven A particular object is deemed to
  be very interesting and decisive for economic
  understanding. Hence, the object is analysed from
  a wide array of different ways of thinking.

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Methodology

• Methodology refers to the question of how to
  determine what counts as justified knowledge.
• Often, methodological discussions establish a set
  of rules or conditions that have to be met in
  order for something to be scientific.
• A certain methodological standpoint often
  advocates specific research methods over others,
  since they are perceived to meet the requirements
  for knowledge in a more satisfactory and
  appropriate way than alternative forms of inquiry.

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Which Methodology to use or what is your research
design?

• Qualitative
• Quantitative
• Mixed methods

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Hypotheses

• Hypotheses are proposals for explaining or
  understanding a certain phenomenon. They can be
  derived from already existing theory (logic, for
  example), from empirical observations or from a
  combination of the two.
• Deductive New hypotheses are logically derived
  from a set of axioms and established laws.
• Middle Axioms, empirical observations and
  conceptualizations are intertwined and the
  researcher goes back and forth whilst developing
  the hypothesis (associated concepts are
  abduction, retroduction, dialectics).
• Inductive Empirical observations and
  generalizations based on observations lead to new
  hypotheses.

Presenter Notes
https//www.butte.edu/departments/cas/tipsheets/th
inking/reasoning.html

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Abductive reasoning and Retrodiction

• Abductive reasoning is to abduce (or take away) a
  logical assumption, explanation, inference,
  conclusion, hypothesis, or best guess from an
  observation or set of observations. Because the
  conclusion is merely a best guess, the conclusion
  that is drawn may or may not be true.
• Retrodiction is the provisional adoption of a
  hypothesis, because every possible consequence of
  it is capable of experimental verification, so
  that the persevering application of the same
  method may be expected to reveal its disagreement
  with facts, if it does so disagree. Retrodiction
  is the act of making a prediction about the past
  using information from the present or other past
  events. For example, climate models can
  "retrodict" climatic change by using past
  climatic data to predict current climate.

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How can we generate and evaluate a theory or a
hypothesis at the abstract level

• Answers to this question illustrate the
  importance different perspectives attach to
  logical coherence, formalism and long chains of
  reasoning when judging whether a hypothesis is
  scientific or not. Perspectives that reject these
  standards as criteria for science choose to
  engage in a broad variety of practices and
  reasoning, even though these might appear to be
  contradictory in the light of classical logic.
• Formalistic The hypothesis can be derived from
  axioms in a logical way. There were no logical
  mistakes made.
• Middle Formalistic logic as well as other forms
  of reasoning are applied.
• Broad reasoning Non-formalistic techniques such
  as counterfactuals, thought experiments,
  deconstruction, (changing) conceptualizations and
  fuzzy sets, heuristics, storytelling, etc. are
  applied in order to assess the validity of a
  hypothesis in a more crude and less exact manner.

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How can we relate a theory or a hypothesis to
reality?

• This question assesses how empirical observation
  is conceptualized by different perspectives. Some
  perspectives have very clear cut rules on how to
  collect and make sense of empirical observations
  and data. Others use ways that are less specified
  and may vary depending on the nature of the
  research.
• Standardised and prescriptive methodology Empiric
  al testing is carried out in a standard and
  prescribed way, which can be justified by
  reference to both the philosophy of science and
  scientific practice. A prominent example
  is the scientific method.
• Middle A combination of standardized ways of
  relating theory to the world and non-standard
  instruments.
• Idiosyncratic An adequate way of referring to
  reality depends on more research and is
  always context dependent. This category refers to
  methods which are only defined in very broad
  terms such as process tracing.

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Post Keynesian Economics

• Effective demand
• Tendency to instability (e.g by animal spirits)
• Capitalist monetary production economy
• Macro economic paradoxes
• Fundamental uncertainty
• Hierarchy of markets
• Endogenous money creation
• Path dependency and historical time
• Non-neutrality of money

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Thank you