40 Painting Techniques of fine art - ShowFlipper

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ShowFlipper Presents

• 40 Painting Techniques of fine art

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Introduction

• The following is an alphabetical list of
  techniques used in Painting. The list comprises
  devices used to introduce the illusion of three
  dimensions on a two-dimensional surface, methods
  of paint application, and different mediums
  chosen by the artist to create the desired visual
  effect.

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What is Painting?

• Painting, the expression of ideas and emotions,
  with the creation of certain aesthetic qualities,
  in a two-dimensional visual language. The
  elements of this languageits shapes, lines,
  colours, tones, and texturesare used in various
  ways to produce sensations of volume, space,
  movement, and light on a flat surface. These
  elements are combined into expressive patterns in
  order to represent real or supernatural
  phenomena, to interpret a narrative theme, or to
  create wholly abstract visual relationships. An
  artists decision to use a particular medium,
  such as tempera, fresco, oil, acrylic, watercolour
   or other water-based paints, ink, gouache, encaus
  tic, or casein, as well as the choice of a
  particular form, such as mural, easel, panel,
  miniature, manuscript illumination, scroll,
  screen or fan, panorama, or any of a variety of
  modern forms, is based on the sensuous qualities
  and the expressive possibilities and limitations
  of those options. The choices of the medium and
  the form, as well as the artists own technique,
  combine to realize a unique visual image.

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• Earlier cultural traditionsof tribes, religions,
  guilds, royal courts, and stateslargely
  controlled the craft, form, imagery, and subject
  matter of painting and determined its function,
  whether ritualistic, devotional, decorative,
  entertaining, or educational. Painters were
  employed more as skilled artisans than as
  creative artists. Later the notion of the fine
  artist developed in Asia and Renaissance Europe.
  Prominent painters were afforded the social
  status of scholars and courtiers they signed
  their work, decided its design and often its
  subject and imagery, and established a more
  personalif not always amicablerelationship with
  their patrons.

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• During the 19th century painters in Western
  societies began to lose their social position and
  secure patronage. Some artists countered the
  decline in patronage support by holding their own
  exhibitions and charging an entrance fee. Others
  earned an income through touring exhibitions of
  their work. The need to appeal to a marketplace
  had replaced the similar (if less impersonal)
  demands of patronage, and its effect on the art
  itself was probably similar as well. Generally,
  artists can now reach an audience only through
  commercial galleries and public museums, although
  their work may be occasionally reproduced in art
  periodicals. They may also be assisted by
  financial awards or commissions from industry and
  the state. They have, however, gained the freedom
  to invent their own visual language and to
  experiment with new forms and unconventional
  materials and techniques. For example, some
  painters have combined other media, such
  as sculpture, with painting to produce
  three-dimensional abstract designs. 

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•  Other artists have attached real objects to
  the canvas in collage fashion or used electricity
  to operate coloured kinetic panels and
  boxes. Conceptualartists frequently express their
  ideas in the form of a proposal for an
  unrealizable project, while performance artists
  are an integral part of their own compositions.
  The restless endeavour to extend the boundaries
  of expression in Western art produces continuous
  international stylistic changes. The often
  bewildering succession of new movements in
  painting is further stimulated by the swift
  interchange of ideas by means of international
  art journals, traveling exhibitions, and art
  centres.

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What is Acrylic Painting?

• Acrylic painting, painting executed in the medium
  of synthetic acrylic resins. Acrylics dry
  rapidly, serve as a vehicle for any kind
  of pigment, and are capable of giving both the
  transparent brilliance of watercolour and the
  density of oil paint. They are considered to be
  less affected by heat and other destructive
  forces than is oil paint. They found favour among
  artists who were concerned about the health risks
  posed by the handling of oil paints and the
  inhalation of fumes associated with them. Because
  of all these desirable characteristics, acrylic
  paints became immediately popular with artists
  when they were first commercially promoted in the
  1960s. Notable 20th-century artists who used
  acrylic paint include Pop artists Andy
  Warhol and Roy Lichtenstein, Op artist Bridget
  Riley, colour field artists Mark
  Rothko, Ellsworth Kelly, and Barnett Newman, and
  British artist David Hockney.

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What is Action Painting?

• Action painting, direct, instinctual, and
  highly dynamic kind of art that involves the
  spontaneous application of vigorous, sweeping
  brushstrokes and the chance effects of dripping
  and spilling paint onto the canvas. The term was
  coined by the American art critic Harold
  Rosenberg to characterize the work of a group of
  American Abstract Expressionists who utilized the
  method from about 1950. Action painting is
  distinguished from the carefully preconceived
  work of the abstract imagists and
  colour-field painters, which constitutes the
  other major direction implicit in Abstract
  Expressionismand resembles Action painting only
  in its absolute devotion to unfettered personal
  expression free of all traditional aesthetic and
  social values.

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• The works of the Action painters Jackson
  Pollock, Willem de Kooning, Franz Kline, Bradley
  Walker Tomlin, and Jack Tworkov reflect the
  influence of the automatic techniques developed
  in Europe in the 1920s and 30s by
  the Surrealists. While Surrealist automatism,
  which consisted of scribblings recorded without
  the artists conscious control, was primarily
  designed to awaken unconscious associations in
  the viewer, the automatic approach of the Action
  painters was primarily conceived as a means of
  giving the artists instinctive creative forces
  free play and of revealing these forces directly
  to the viewer. In Action painting the act of
  painting itself, being the moment of the artists
  creative interaction with his materials, was as
  significant as the finished work.

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• It is generally recognized that Jackson Pollocks
  abstract drip paintings, executed from 1947,
  opened the way to the bolder, gestural techniques
  that characterize Action painting. The vigorous
  brushstrokes of de Koonings Woman series,
  begun in the early 1950s, successfully evolved a
  richly emotive expressive style. Action painting
  was of major importance throughout the 1950s in
  Abstract Expressionism, the most-influential art
  movement at the time in the United States. By the
  end of the decade, however, leadership of the
  movement had shifted to the colour-field and
  abstract imagist painters, whose followers in the
  1960s rebelled against the irrationality of the
  Action painters. See alsoTachism.

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What is Aerial Perspective?

• Aerial perspective, also called atmospheric
  perspective, method of creating the illusion of
  depth, or recession, in a painting or drawing by
  modulating colour to simulate changes effected by
  the atmosphere on the colours of things seen at a
  distance. Although the use of aerial perspective h
  as been known since antiquity, Leonardo da
  Vinci first used the term aerial perspective in
  his Treatise on Painting, in which he wrote
  Colours become weaker in proportion to their
  distance from the person who is looking at them.
  It was later discovered that the presence in the
  atmosphere of moisture and of tiny particles of
  dust and similar material causes a scattering of
  light as it passes through them, the degree of
  scattering being dependent on the wavelength,
  which corresponds to the colour, of the light.
  Because light of short wavelengthblue lightis
  scattered most, the colours of all distant dark
  objects tend toward blue for example, distant
  mountains have a bluish cast. Light of long
  wavelengthred lightis scattered least thus,
  distant bright objects appear redder because some
  of the blue is scattered and lost from the light
  by which they are seen.

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• The intervening atmosphere between a viewer and,
  for example, distant mountains, creates other
  visual effects that can be mimicked by landscape
  painters. The atmosphere causes distant forms to
  have less distinct edges and outlines than forms
  near the viewer, and interior detail is similarly
  softened or blurred. Distant objects appear
  somewhat lighter than objects of similar tone
  lying closer at hand, and in general contrasts
  between light and shade appear less extreme at
  great distances. All these effects are more
  apparent at the base of a mountain than at its
  peak, since the density of the intervening
  atmosphere is greater at lower elevations.

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• Examples of aerial perspective have been found in
  ancient Greco-Roman wall paintings. The
  techniques were lost from European art during the
  Dark and Middle Ages and were rediscovered by
  Flemish painters of the 15th century (such
  as Joachim Patinir), after which they became a
  standard element in the European
  painters technical vocabulary. The 19th-century
  British landscape painter J.M.W. Turner made
  perhaps the boldest and most ambitious use of
  aerial perspective among Western artists. Aerial
  perspective was used with great sophistication
  and pictorial effectiveness by Chinese landscape
  painters from about the 8th century on.

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What is Anamorphosis?

• Anamorphosis, in the visual arts, an
  ingenious perspective technique that gives a
  distorted image of the subject represented in a
  picture when seen from the usual viewpoint but so
  executed that if viewed from a particular angle,
  or reflected in a curved mirror, the distortion
  disappears and the image in the picture appears
  normal. Derived from the Greek word meaning to
  transform, the term anamorphosis was first
  employed in the 17th century, although this
  technique had been one of the more curious
  by-products of the discovery of perspective in
  the 14th and 15th centuries.

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• The first examples appear in Leonardo da
  Vincis notebooks. It was regarded as a display
  of technical virtuosity, and it was included in
  most 16th- and 17th-century drawing manuals. Two
  important examples of anamorphosis are a portrait
  of Edward VI (1546) that has been attributed to
  William Scrots, and a skull in the foreground
  of Hans Holbein the Youngers painting of Jean de
  Dinteville and Georges de Selve, The
  Ambassadors (1533). Many examples are provided
  with special peepholes through which can be seen
  the rectified view that first eluded the viewer.

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• A modern equivalent of anamorphosis is the
  so-called Ames Room, in which people and objects
  are distorted by manipulation of the contours of
  the room in which they are seen. This and other
  aspects of anamorphosis received a good deal of
  attention in the 20th century from psychologists
  interested in perception.

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• Artists and architects in the 21st century
  continued to experiment with anamorphic designs.
  In 2014 Swiss artist Felice Variniknown for
  large-scale anamorphic installationscreated Three
  Ellipses for Three Locks, for which he painted
  three ellipses, segments of which covered roads,
  walls, and nearly 100 buildings in the historic
  centre of the city of Hasselt, Belgium. The
  design became coherent only when viewed from a
  particular vantage point in the city.

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What is Camaieu?

• Camaieu, plural camaieux, painting technique by
  which an image is executed either entirely in
  shades or tints of a single colour or in several
  hues unnatural to the object, figure, or scene
  represented. When a picture is monochromatically
  rendered in gray, it is called grisaille when in
  yellow, cirage. Originating in the ancient world,
  camaieu was used in miniature painting to
  simulate cameos and in architectural decoration
  to simulate relief sculpture.

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What is Casein Painting?

• Casein painting, painting executed with colours
  ground in a solution of casein, a phosphoprotein
  of milk precipitated by heating with an acid or
  by lactic acid in souring. In the form of
  homemade curd made from soured skim milk, it has
  been a traditional adhesive and binder for more
  than eight centuries. Refined, pure, powdered
  casein, which can be dissolved with ammonia, has
  been used for easel and mural paintings since the
  latter 19th and early 20th centuries, and, more
  recently, ready-made casein paints in tubes have
  come into very wide use. An advantage of casein
  painting is that it can create effects that
  approach those of oil painting. It permits the
  use of bristle brushes and a moderate impasto,
  like oil painting, but not the fusion of tones.
  It is preferred by some because of speedy drying
  and matte effects. When dry, the paint becomes
  water resistant to a considerable degree. Casein
  paintings may be varnished to further resemble
  oil paintings, and they are frequently glazed or
  overpainted with oil colours. Because casein is
  too brittle for canvas, it must be applied to
  rigid boards or panels.

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What is Chiaroscuro?

• Chiaroscuro, (from Italian chiaro, light,
  and scuro, dark) technique employed in
  the visual arts to represent light and shadow as
  they define three-dimensional objects.
• Some evidence exists that ancient Greek and Roman
  artists used chiaroscuro effects, but in
  European painting the technique was first brought
  to its full potential by Leonardo da Vinci in the
  late 15th century in such paintings as
  his Adoration of the Magi (1481). Thereafter,
  chiaroscuro became a primary technique for many
  painters, and by the late 17th century the term
  was routinely used to describe any
  painting, drawing, or print that depended for its
  effect on an extensive gradation of light and
  darkness.

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• In its most dramatic formas in the works of
  those Italian artists of the 17th century who
  came under the influence of Caravaggioit was
  known as tenebrismo, or tenebrism. Caravaggio and
  his followers used a harsh, dramatic light to
  isolate their figures and heighten their
  emotional tension. Another outstanding master of
  chiaroscuro was Rembrandt, who used it with
  remarkable psychological effect in his paintings,
  drawings, and etchings. Peter Paul Rubens, Diego
  Velazquez, and many other, lesser painters of
  the Baroque period also used chiaroscuro to great
  effect. The delicacy and lightness of
  18th-century Rococo painting represents a
  rejection of this dramatic use of chiaroscuro,
  but the technique again became popular with
  artists of the Romantic period, who relied upon
  it to create the emotive effects they considered
  essential to their art.

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• In the graphic arts, the term chiaroscuro refers
  to a particular technique for making
  a woodcut print in which effects of light and
  shade are produced by printing each tone from a
  different wood block. The technique was first
  used in woodcuts in Italy in the 16th century,
  probably by the printmaker Ugo da Carpi. To make
  a chiaroscuro woodcut, the key block was inked
  with the darkest tone and printed first.
  Subsequent blocks were inked with progressively
  lighter tones and carefully measured to print in
  register with the key block. Chiaroscuro woodcuts
  are printed in only one colour, brown, gray,
  green, and sepia being preferred. The process
  attempted to imitate wash and watercolour drawings
  and also became popular as an inexpensive method
  of reproducing paintings.

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What is Divisionism?

• Divisionism, in painting, the practice of
  separating colour into individual dots or strokes
  of pigment. It formed the technical basis
  for Neo-Impressionism. Following the rules of
  contemporary colour theory, Neo-Impressionist
  artists such as Georges Seurat and Paul
  Signac applied contrasting dots of colour side by
  side so that, when seen from a distance, these
  dots would blend and be perceived by the retina
  as a luminous whole. Whereas the
  term divisionism refers to this separation of
  colour and its optical effects, the
  term pointillism refers specifically to the
  technique of applying dots.

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What is Easel Painting?

• Easel painting, painting executed on a portable
  support such as a panel or canvas, instead of on
  a wall. It is likely that easel paintings were
  known to the ancient Egyptians, and the
  1st-century-ADRoman scholar Pliny the
  Elder refers to a large panel placed on an easel
  it was not until the 13th century, however, that
  easel paintings became relatively common, finally
  superseding in popularity the mural, or wall
  painting.

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What is Encaustic Painting?

• Encaustic painting, painting technique in which
  pigments are mixed with hot liquid wax. Artists
  can change the paints consistency by adding
  resin or oil (the latter for use on canvas) to
  the wax. After the paint has been applied to the
  support, which is usually made of wood, plaster,
  or canvas, a heating element is passed over the
  surface until the individual brush or spatula
  marks fuse into a uniform film. This burning in
  of the colours is an essential element of the
  true encaustic technique.

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• Encaustic wax has many of the properties of oil
  paint it can give a very brilliant and
  attractive effect and offers great scope for
  elegant and expressive brushwork. The practical
  difficulties of using a medium that has to be
  kept warm are considerable, though. Apart from
  the greater sophistication of modern methods of
  heating, the present-day technique is similar to
  that described by the 1st-century-CE Roman
  scholar Pliny the Elder. Encaustic painting was
  invented by the ancient Greeks and was brought to
  the peak of its technical perfection by
  the genre painter Pausias in the 4th century BCE.

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What is Foreshortening?

• Foreshortening, method of rendering a specific
  object or figure in a picture in depth.
• The artist records, in varying degrees, the
  distortion that is seen by the eye when an object
  or figure is viewed at a distance or at an
  unusual angle. In a photograph of a recumbent
  figure positioned so that the feet are nearest
  the camera, for instance, the feet will seem
  unnaturally large and those body parts at a
  distance, such as the head, unnaturally small.
  The artist may either record this effect exactly,
  producing a startling illusion of reality that
  seems to violate the picture plane (surface of
  the picture), or modify it, slightly reducing the
  relative size of the nearer part of the object,
  so as to make a less-aggressive assault on the
  viewers eye and to relate the foreshortened
  object more harmoniously to the rest of the
  picture.

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• Insofar as foreshortening is basically concerned
  with the persuasive projection of a form in
  an illusionistic way, it is a type
  of perspective, but the term foreshortening is
  almost invariably used in relation to a single
  object, or part of an object, rather than to a
  scene or group of objects.

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What is Fresco Painting?

• Fresco painting, method of painting water-based
  pigments on freshly applied plaster, usually on
  wall surfaces. The colours, which are made by
  grinding dry-powder pigments in pure water, dry
  and set with the plaster to become a permanent
  part of the wall. Fresco painting is ideal for
  making murals because it lends itself to a
  monumental style, is durable, and has a matte
  surface.

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What is Gouache?

• Gouache, painting technique in which a gum or
  an opaque white pigment is added to watercolours
  to produce opacity. In watercolour the tiny
  particles of pigment become enmeshed in the fibre
  of the paper in gouache the colour lies on the
  surface of the paper, forming a continuous layer,
  or coating. A gouache is characterized by a
  directly reflecting brilliance. When applied with
  bristle brushes it is possible to achieve a
  slight but effective impasto (thick-coated)
  quality with sable brushes, a smooth, flawless
  colour field is obtained.

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• A painting technique of great antiquity, gouache
  was used by the Egyptians. It was a popular
  medium with Rococo artists such as François
  Boucher (170370). Contemporary painters use
  gouache alone or in combination with watercolour
  and other mediums.

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What is Graffiti?

• Graffiti, form of visual communication, usually
  illegal, involving the unauthorized marking of
  public space by an individual or group. Although
  the common image of graffiti is a stylistic
  symbol or phrase spray-painted on a wall by a
  member of a street gang, some graffiti is not
  gang-related. Graffiti can be understood as
  antisocial behaviour performed in order to gain
  attention or as a form of thrill seeking, but it
  also can be understood as an expressive art form.

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• Derived from the Italian word graffio (scratch),
  graffiti (incised inscriptions, plural but
  often used as singular) has a long history. For
  example, markings have been found in ancient
  Roman ruins, in the remains of the Mayan city
  of Tikal in Central America, on rocks in Spain
  dating to the 16th century, and
  in medieval English churches. During the 20th
  century, graffiti in the United States and Europe
  was closely associated with gangs, who used it
  for a variety of purposes for identifying or
  claiming territory, for memorializing dead gang
  members in an informal obituary, for boasting
  about acts (e.g., crimes) committed by gang
  members, and for challenging rival gangs as a
  prelude to violent confrontations. 

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• Graffiti was particularly prominent in major
  urban centres throughout the world, especially in
  the United States and Europe common targets were
  subways, billboards, and walls. In the 1990s
  there emerged a new form of graffiti, known as
  tagging, which entailed the repeated use of a
  single symbol or series of symbols to mark
  territory. In order to attract the most attention
  possible, this type of graffiti usually appeared
  in strategically or centrally located
  neighbourhoods.

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• To some observers graffiti is a form of public
  art, continuing the tradition, for example, of
  the muralscommissioned by the U.S. Works Progress
  Administration Federal Art Project during
  the Great Depression and the work of Diego
  Rivera in Mexico. Like the murals of these
  artists, great works of graffiti can beautify a
  neighbourhood and speak to the interests of a
  specific community. For example, the graffiti in
  many Hispanic neighbourhoods in the United States
  is quite elaborate and is regarded by many as a
  form of urban art. The question of whether such
  work is an innovative art form or a public
  nuisance has aroused much debate.

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• Graffiti became notoriously prominent in New York
  City in the late 20th century. Large elaborate
  multicoloured graffiti created with spray paint
  on building walls and subway cars came to define
  the urban landscape. The art worlds fascination
  with artists who functioned outside traditional
  gallery channels stimulated an interest in this
  form of self-expression. In the 1980s New York
  artists such as Keith Haring and Jean-Michel
  Basquiat gained notoriety for their graffiti and
  parlayed this recognition into successful careers
  as painters represented by top galleries.

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• Most jurisdictions have laws prohibiting graffiti
  as vandalism, and in some countries punishment is
  quite severe. For example, in Singapore violators
  are subject to caning. During the 1980s and 90s
  many jurisdictions sought ways to eliminate and
  remove graffiti, fearing that it would otherwise
  lead to the debasement of the community.
  Significant resources were allocated for
  abatement and other clean-up efforts, and some
  cities even introduced mural programs or free
  walls to provide legal opportunities for urban
  youths to express their artistic creativity.

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What is Grisaille?

• Grisaille, painting technique by which an image
  is executed entirely in shades of gray and
  usually severely modeled to create
  the illusion of sculpture, especially relief.
  This aspect of grisaille was used particularly by
  the 15th-century Flemish painters (as in the
  outer wings of the van Eycks Ghent Altarpiece)
  and in the late 18th century to imitate classical
  sculpture in wall and ceiling decoration. Among
  glass painters, grisaille is the name of a gray,
  vitreous pigment used in the art of colouring
  glass for stained glass. In French, grisaille has
  also come to mean any painting technique in which
  translucent oil colours are laid over a monotone
  underpainting.

39

• In the grisaille enamel painting technique,
  pulverized white vitreous enamel is made into a
  paste by mixing it with water, turpentine, oil of
  lavender, or petroleum oil and is then applied to
  a dark enamel ground, usually coloured black or
  blue. Lighter areas of the design are thickly
  painted, while the gray areas are obtained by
  painting with thinner coats to allow the dark
  background colour to tone the white enamel
  pigment. This technique achieves a dramatic
  effect of light and shade and a pronounced sense
  of three-dimensionality. Grisaille enamels were
  developed in the 16th century in France by
  the Limoges school of enamelers. Among the most
  noted practitioners of this technique were
  members of the Pénicaud family. The technique was
  also popular with some 20th-century painters,
  including Alfred Leslie and Chuck Close.

40
What is Impasto?

• Impasto, paint that is applied to a canvas or
  panel in quantities that make it stand out from
  the surface. Impasto was used frequently to mimic
  the broken-textured quality of highlightsi.e., th
  e surfaces of objects that are struck by an
  intense light. Impasto came into its own in the
  17th century, when such Baroque painters as
  Rembrandt, Frans Hals, and Diego Velázquez used
  skillfully and minutely worked impastos to depict
  lined and wrinkled skin or the sparkle of
  elaborately crafted armour, jewelry, and rich
  fabrics. The 19th-century painter Vincent van
  Gogh made notable use of impastos, building up
  and defining the forms in his paintings with
  thick, nervous dabs of paint. Twentieth-century
  painters such as Jackson Pollock and Willem de
  Kooning often applied impastos with a dynamism
  and a gestural bravura that emphasized the
  physical qualities of the paint itself. Since
  then, raw pigments applied thickly to a canvas
  have become a staple technique of modern abstract
  and semifigurative painting.

41
What is Miniature Painting?

• Miniature painting, also called (16th17th
  century) limning, small, finely wrought portrait
  executed on vellum, prepared card, copper, or
  ivory. The name is derived from the minium, or
  red lead, used by the medieval illuminators.
  Arising from a fusion of the separate traditions
  of the illuminated manuscriptand the medal,
  miniature painting flourished from the beginning
  of the 16th century down to the mid-19th century.

42
What is Mural?

• Mural, a painting applied to and
  made integral with the surface of
  a wall or ceiling. The term may properly include
  painting on fired tiles but ordinarily does not
  refer to mosaic decoration unless the mosaic
  forms part of the overall scheme of the painting.

43
What is Oil Painting?

• Oil painting, painting in oil colours, a medium
  consisting of pigments suspended in drying oils.
  The outstanding facility with which fusion of
  tones or colour is achieved makes it unique among
  fluid painting mediums at the same time,
  satisfactory linear treatment and crisp effects
  are easily obtained. Opaque, transparent, and
  translucent painting all lie within its range,
  and it is unsurpassed for textural variation.

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What is Panel Painting?

• Panel painting, painting executed on a rigid
  supportordinarily wood or metalas distinct from
  painting done on canvas. Before canvas came into
  general use at the end of the 16th century, the
  panel was the support most often used for easel
  painting. A variety of woods have been used,
  including beech, cedar, chestnut, fir, larch, lind
  en, white poplar, mahogany, olive, dark walnut,
  and teak. Wooden panels were usually boiled or
  steamed to remove gum and resin and thereby
  prevent splitting and then were coated with size
  (a glutinous material) to fill pores and
  with gesso (a mixture of glue and whiting), on
  which the painting was executed. Metals used for
  panel paintings include silver, tin, lead,
  and zinc.

45

• During the Middle Ages, especially in Russia
  during the period encompassing the work of
  the Novgorod school (12th16th century),
  paintings were executed on panels over which
  leather had been stretched. Panels were
  especially popular for making decorative altarpiec
  es. Siennese artist Duccio, Flemish
  artists Robert Campin, Rogier van der Weyden, and
  brothers Hubert and Jan van Eyck, and German
  artist Matthias Grünewald are notable for their
  panel altarpieces.

46
What is Panorama?

• Panorama, in the visual arts, continuous
  narrative scene or landscape painted to conform
  to a flat or curved background, which surrounds
  or is unrolled before the viewer.

47
What is Perspective?

• Perspective, method of graphically depicting
  three-dimensional objects and spatial
  relationships on a two-dimensional plane or on a
  plane that is shallower than the original (for
  example, in flat relief).
• Perceptual methods of representing space and
  volume, which render them as seen at a particular
  time and from a fixed position and are
  characteristic of Chinese and most Western
  painting since the Renaissance, are in contrast
  to conceptual methods. Pictures drawn by young
  children and primitives (untrained artists), many
  paintings of cultures such as ancient Egypt and
  Crete, India, Islam, and pre-Renaissance Europe,
  as well as the paintings of many modern artists,
  depict objects and surroundings independently of
  one anotheras they are known to be, rather than
  as they are seen to beand from the directions
  that best present their most characteristic
  features. Many Egyptian and Cretan paintings and
  drawings, for example, show the head and legs of
  a figure in profile, while the eye and torso are
  shown frontally (see photograph). This system
  produces not the illusion of depth but the sense
  that objects and their surroundings have been
  compressed within a shallow space behind the
  picture plane.

48

• In Western art, illusions of perceptual volume
  and space are generally created by use of
  the linear perspectival system, based on the
  observations that objects appear to the eye to
  shrink and parallel lines and planes to converge
  to infinitely distant vanishing points as they
  recede in space from the viewer. Parallel lines
  in spatial recession will appear to converge on a
  single vanishing point, called one-point
  perspective. Perceptual space and volume may be
  simulated on the picture plane by variations on
  this basic principle, differing according to the
  number and location of the vanishing points.
  Instead of one-point (or central) perspective,
  the artist may use, for instance, angular (or
  oblique) perspective, which employs two vanishing
  points.

49

• Another kind of systemparallel perspective
  combined with a viewpoint from aboveis
  traditional in Chinese painting. When buildings
  rather than natural contours are painted and it
  is necessary to show the parallel horizontal
  lines of the construction, parallel lines are
  drawn parallel instead of converging, as
  in linear perspective. Often foliage is used to
  crop these lines before they extend far enough to
  cause a building to appear warped.

50

• The early European artist used a perspective that
  was an individual interpretation of what he saw
  rather than a fixed mechanical method. At the
  beginning of the Italian Renaissance, early in
  the 15th century, the mathematical laws of
  perspective were discovered by the
  architect Filippo Brunelleschi, who worked out
  some of the basic principles, including the
  concept of the vanishing point, which had been
  known to the Greeks and Romans but had been lost.
  These principles were applied in painting
  by Masaccio (as in his Trinity fresco in Santa
  Maria Novella, Florence c. 1427), who within a
  short period brought about an entirely new
  approach in painting. 

51

• A style was soon developed using configurations
  of architectural exteriors and interiors as the
  background for religious paintings, which thereby
  acquired the illusion of great spatial depth. In
  his seminal Della pittura (1436 On
  Painting), Leon Battista Alberti codified,
  especially for painters, much of the practical
  work on the subject that had been carried out by
  earlier artists he formulated, for example, the
  idea that vision makes a triangle, and from this
  it is clear that a very distant quantity seems no
  larger than a point.

52

• Linear perspective dominated Western painting
  until the end of the 19th century, when Paul
  Cézanneflattened the conventional Renaissance
  picture space. The Cubists and other 20th-century
  painters abandoned the depiction of
  three-dimensional space altogether and hence had
  no need for linear perspective.

53

• Linear perspective plays an important part in
  presentations of ideas for works by architects,
  engineers, landscape architects, and industrial
  designers, furnishing an opportunity to view the
  finished product before it is begun. Differing in
  principle from linear perspective and used by
  both Chinese and European painters, aerial
  perspective is a method of creating the illusion
  of depth by a modulation of colour and tone.

54
What is Plein-air Painting?

• Plein-air painting, in its strictest sense, the
  practice of painting landscape pictures
  out-of-doors more loosely, the achievement of an
  intense impression of the open air (French plein
  air) in a landscape painting.

55

• Until the time of the painters of the Barbizon
  school in mid-19th-century France, it was normal
  practice to execute rough sketches of landscape
  subjects in the open air and produce finished
  paintings in the studio. Part of this was a
  matter of convenience. Before the invention of
  the collapsible tin paint tube, widely marketed
  by the colour merchants Winsor Newton in 1841,
  painters purchased their colours in the form of
  ground pigment and mixed them fresh with an
  appropriate medium such as oil. The new tubes
  filled with prepared colours, as well as the
  invention of a lightweight, portable easel a
  decade later, made it much easier to paint
  out-of-doors. 

56

• Despite these advances, many of the Barbizon
  painters continued to create most of their work
  in the studio not until the late 1860s, with the
  work of Claude Monet, Pierre-Auguste Renoir,
  and Camille Pissarro, the leaders
  of Impressionism, did painting en plein
  air become more popular. This change came about
  from 1881, when Monet, in his efforts to capture
  the true effects of light on the colour of
  landscape at any given moment, began to carry
  several canvases at once into the out-of-doors.
  On each he began a painting of the same subject
  at a different time of day on subsequent days,
  he continued to work on each canvas in succession
  as the appropriate light appeared.

57
What is Sand Painting?

• Sand painting, also called dry painting, type of
  art that exists in highly developed forms among
  the Navajo and Pueblo Indians of the American
  Southwest and in simpler forms among several
  Plains and California Indian tribes.
  Although sand painting is an art form, it is
  valued among the Indians primarily for religious
  rather than aesthetic reasons. Its main function
  is in connection with healing ceremonies.

58

• Sand paintings are stylized, symbolic pictures
  prepared by trickling small quantities of
  crushed, coloured sandstone, charcoal, pollen, or
  other dry materials in white, blue, yellow,
  black, and red hues on a background of clean,
  smoothed sand. About 600 different pictures are
  known, consisting of various representations of
  deities, animals, lightning, rainbows, plants,
  and other symbols described in the chants that
  accompany various rites. In healing, the choice
  of the particular painting is left to the curer.
  Upon completion of the picture, the patient sits
  on the centre of the painting, and sand from the
  painting is applied to parts of his body. When
  the ritual is completed, the painting is
  destroyed.

59

• For years the Indians would not allow permanent,
  exact copies of sand paintings to be made. When
  the designs were copied in rugs, an error was
  deliberately made so that the original design
  would still be powerful. Today many of the
  paintings have been copied both to preserve the
  art and for the record.

60
What is Scroll Painting?

• Scroll painting, art form practiced primarily in
  East Asia. The two dominant types may be
  illustrated by the Chinese landscape scroll,
  which is that cultures greatest contribution to
  the history of painting, and the Japanese
  narrative scroll, which developed the
  storytelling potential of painting.

61
What is Sfumato?

• Sfumato, (from Italian sfumare, to tone down or
  to evaporate like smoke), in painting or drawing
  , the fine shading that produces soft,
  imperceptible transitions between colours and
  tones. It is used most often in connection with
  the work of Leonardo da Vinci and his followers,
  who made subtle gradations, without lines or
  borders, from light to dark areas the technique
  was used for a highly illusionistic rendering of
  facial features and for atmospheric effects. See
  also chiaroscuro.

62
What is Sgraffito?

• Sgraffito, (Italian scratched), in the visual
  arts, a technique used in painting, pottery, and
  glass, which consists of putting down a
  preliminary surface, covering it with another,
  and then scratching the superficial layer in such
  a way that the pattern or shape that emerges is
  of the lower colour. During the Middle Ages,
  especially in panel painting and in the
  illumination of manuscripts, the ground was often
  of gold leaf. In wall painting, or mural
  painting, two layers of different-coloured plaster
   are usually employed.

63

• In stained glass, the scratching is done through
  a top layer of coloured glass, revealing clear
  glass beneath in pottery the pattern is incised
  through a white or coloured slip (mixture of clay
  and water washed over the vessel before firing),
  revealing the body colour beneath. Sgraffito
  ware was produced by Islamic potters and became
  common throughout the Middle East. The
  18th-century scratch blue class of English white
  stoneware is decorated with sgraffito patterns
  touched with blue. Sgraffito ware was produced as
  early as 1735 by German settlers in colonial
  America.

64
What is Sotto In Su?

• Sotto in su, (Italian from below to above) in
  drawing and painting, extreme foreshortening of
  figures painted on a ceiling or other high
  surface so as to give the illusion that the
  figures are suspended in air above the viewer. It
  is an approach that was developed during the
  Renaissance, and it was especially favoured by
  Baroque and Rococo painters, particularly in
  Italy. Andrea Mantegna, Giulio Romano, Correggio,
  and Giovanni Battista Tiepolo were outstanding
  exponents of the technique.

65
What is Tachism?

• Tachism, French Tachisme, (from tache, spot),
  style of painting practiced in Paris after World
  War IIand through the 1950s that, like its
  American equivalent, Action painting, featured
  the intuitive, spontaneous gesture of the
  artists brushstroke. Developed by the young
  painters Hans Hartung, Gérard Schneider, Pierre
  Soulages, Frans Wols, Chao Wu-chi (Zao Wu-ki),
  and Georges Mathieu, Tachism was part of a larger
  French postwar movement known as Art Informel,
  which abandoned geometric abstraction in favour
  of a more intuitive form of expression. Art
  Informel was inspired by the instinctive,
  personal approach of contemporary
  American Abstract Expressionism, of which Action
  painting was one aspect.

66

• Like their American counterparts, the
  French-educated Tachists worked with a loaded
  brush, producing large works of sweeping
  brushstrokes and of drips, blots, stains, and
  splashes of colour. Their works, however, are
  more elegant and lyricaloften including graceful
  lines and blended, muted coloursthan the works
  of such American painters as Jackson
  Pollock and Willem de Kooning, on whom the French
  artists modeled themselves. The Tachists were
  also less indebted than were the Action painters
  to uninhibited psychic inspiration.

67
What is Tempera Painting?

• Tempera painting, painting executed
  with pigment ground in a water-miscible medium.
  The word tempera originally came from the
  verb temper, to bring to a desired consistency.
  Dry pigments are made usable by tempering them
  with a binding and adhesive vehicle.
  Such painting was distinguished from fresco
  painting, the colours for which contained no
  binder. Eventually, after the rise of oil
  painting, the word gained its present meaning.

68
What is Tenebrism?

• Tenebrism, in the history of Western painting,
  the use of extreme contrasts of light and dark in
  figurative compositions to heighten their
  dramatic effect. (The term is derived from the
  Latin tenebrae, darkness.) In tenebrist
  paintings, the figures are often portrayed
  against a background of intense darkness, but the
  figures themselves are illuminated by a bright,
  searching light that sets off their
  three-dimensional forms by a harsh but
  exquisitely controlled chiaroscuro. The technique
  was introduced by the Italian painter Caravaggio (
  15711610) and was taken up in the early 17th
  century by painters influenced by him, including
  the French painter Georges de La Tour, the Dutch
  painters Gerrit van Honthorst and Hendrik
  Terbrugghen, and the Spanish painter Francisco de
  Zurbarán.

69
What is Trompe L'oeil?

• Trompe loeil, (French deceive the eye)
  in painting, the representation of an object with
  such verisimilitude as to deceive the viewer
  concerning the material reality of the object.
  This idea appealed to the ancient Greeks who were
  newly emancipated from the conventional
  stylizations of earlier art. Zeuxis, for example,
  reportedly painted such realistic grapes that
  birds tried to eat them. The technique was also
  popular with Roman muralists. Although trompe
  loeil never achieved the status of a major
  artistic aim, European painters from the
  early Renaissance onward occasionally fostered
  illusionism by painting false frames out of which
  the contents of a still life or portrait appeared
  to spill or by creating windowlike images
  suggesting actual openings in the wall or ceiling.

70

• In Italy in the 15th century an inlay work known
  as intarsia was used on choir stalls and in
  sacristies, frequently as trompe loeil views of
  cupboards with different articles seen upon the
  shelves through half-open doors. In America the
  19th-century still-life painter William
  Harnett became famous for his card-rack
  paintings, on which are depicted various cards
  and clippings with such verisimilitude that the
  viewer becomes convinced that they can be lifted
  off the painted rack. In the late 20th century,
  muralist Richard Haas painted the exteriors of
  entire buildings in trompe loeil, primarily
  in Chicagoand New York City. Aaron Bohrod was one
  of the foremost 20th-century practitioners of
  small-scale trompe loeil.

71
What is Watercolor Technique?

• Watercolor was initially developed in Asia during
  the 8th century to be laid on fine silks and
  woven paper. The paints slowly made their way to
  Byzantium and Europe in the 14th century, placing
  its aesthetic hold onto illuminated manuscripts,
  and later rendered itself to the gossamer
  aesthetic of the French Impressionists.
• Watercolor paint uses ground pigments mixed with
  water-soluble binders. Watercolor painting lends
  itself to a gradient of tonal hues that can
  imitate the washes of sky and sea, but it is
  considered one of the most difficult mediums to
  master, as it doesnt lend itself to correction
  after application. Many consider Itzchak
  Tarkay (1935-2012) to be an especially gifted
  watercolorist who awed viewers with his
  technique.

72
What is Giclee (Gee-Clay) Spray Technique?

• Giclée (pronounced gee-clay) printing is the art
  medium of now, fusing together traditions of
  realism and digital innovation.  A French term,
  translating into the spraying of ink, giclées
  arent simply printed reproductions rather,
  theyre the result of obsessive digital
  fine-tuning and modification, and are able to
  capture great photorealistic detail. The process
  begins with a high resolution photograph of the
  artwork being translated into giclée form. The
  image is then scanned, turned into a digital
  source file, color corrected, printed, revised,
  reprinted and subject to constant adjustment
  until the artist is satisfied with the printed
  product.
• Artists liked Pino, Andrew Bone, Scott
  Jacobs, Autumn de Forest, and many more have
  utilized giclées for their limited edition
  artworks.

73
What is Underpainting?

• I never work from white when using oils or
  acrylics. Create an underpainting in burnt umber
  or a mix of burnt sienna and phthalo blues to
  establish shadows and values. Acrylics are
  probably the best medium to use at this stage as
  they're quick-drying and permanent.

74

• Work paint up from thin to thick, especially when
  using slow-drying paints. It's impossible to work
  on top of heavy, wet paint. In the same way, work
  up to highlights, adding the brightest (and
  usually heavier) paint at the end. Have a roll of
  kitchen towel to hand to clean brushes and remove
  any excess paint if you make a mistake.

75
What is Blocking In?

• Brushes come in a number of shapes and with
  different fibre types, all of which give very
  different results. The key is to try all of them
  as you paint. The most versatile are a
  synthetic/sable mix these brushes can be used
  with most of the different paint types. Brushes
  come in flat and round types and it pays to have
  a selection of both. Check out our guide to
  picking the right brush to learn more.

76

• I work with a range of brushes. For most of the
  early work I use larger, flatter and broader
  brushes. A filbert is a good general brush for
  blocking in form and paint. It has a dual nature,
  combining aspects of flat and round brushes so it
  can cover detail as well as larger areas. I tend
  to use smaller brushes only at the end of the
  painting process.

77
What is Building Up Texture?

• Have a dry, flat brush that you can use to blend
  your paint and create smooth transitions. I tend
  to like lots of texture and like to see brush
  marks in my own work. Almost anything can be used
  to add texture to your paint. There are
  ready-made texture media available, but I have
  seen items such as egg shell and sand used to add
  interest to a painting.
• One tip is to use an old toothbrush to spatter
  your image with paint. This can be remarkably
  effective at suggesting noise and grain.

78
What is Dry Brushing?

• This is a method of applying colour that only
  partially covers a previously dried layer of
  paint. Add very little paint to your brush and
  apply it with very quick, directional strokes.
• This method tends to work best when applying
  light paint over dark areas/dried paint and is
  useful for depicting rock and grass textures.

79
What is Glazing?

• Glazing is the process of laying a coat of
  transparent paint over a dry part of the
  painting, and it's used for intensifying shadows
  and modulating colour. A light transparent blue
  over dry yellow will of course create green.

80
What is Painting with Mediums?

• Mediums are fluids that can be added to paint to
  modulate its consistency, drying time and
  texture. In the case of acrylics, you get
  different mediums that make the paint matte or
  gloss. However, I tend to use the matte medium
  mainly to seal my paper or board, so paint
  doesn't soak into it.

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Thank you