Chapter 4 Fostering Learning and Reinforcement

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Chapter 4Fostering Learning and Reinforcement

• Overview of Learning Theories
• Learning Through Rewards and Punishments
• Contingencies of Reinforcement
• Schedules of Reinforcement
• Social Learning Theory
• Case Henry Butts Oldsmobile

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Nature of Learning

• Learning is a relatively permanent change in
  knowledge or observable behavior that results
  from practice or experience.
• Importance of Learning to OB Not in Text
• Most organizational behavior is learned (remember
  that only 2-12 of behavior is directly linked to
  personality)
• By controlling the situation, a manager can
  influence behavior/performance
• The manager is held accountable for the
  performance of his/her subordinates

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Overview of the Three Types of Learning

• Classical Conditioning The learning of
  involuntary, reflexive behavior, such as
  emotional reactions
• Operant Conditioning The learning of voluntary,
  goal-directed behavior through the direct
  experience of consequences
• Social Learning The learning of voluntary,
  goal-directed behavior through observation and
  imitation of others

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Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (food)
Reflex response (salivation)
Conditioned stimulus (metronome)
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Examples of Operant Behaviors and Their
Consequences
BEHAVIORS
CONSEQUENCES
The Individual

• works and is paid.
• is late to work and is docked pay.
• enters a restaurant and eats.
• enters a football stadium and watches a football
  game.
• enters a grocery store and buys food.

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Examples of the Three Types of LearningWhich
Example Illustrates Each Type?

• After a tightening in policy regarding lateness,
  a worker sees a coworker fired for excessive
  tardiness, resulting in increased attention to
  arriving on time
• After a tightening in policy regarding lateness,
  a worker receives a written reprimand for being
  late twice in one month, resulting in increased
  attention to arriving on time
• After witnessing a coworkers accidental loss of
  several fingers in a machinery accident, a worker
  experiences anxiety when operating the same piece
  of machinery

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Contingency of Reinforcement

• Definition The relationship between a behavior
  and the preceding and following environmental
  events that influence that behavior
• Basic Components
• Antecedent -- the stimulus that precedes the
  behavior
• Behavior -- the behavior emitted in response to
  the stimulus
• Consequence -- the positive or negative
  consequence of the behavior
• Important Note Managers can often control the
  contingencies of reinforcement influencing their
  subordinates behavior, and thereby, the behavior
  itself

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Example of Contingent Reinforcement
NO
Manager is silent or reprimands employee
Manager and employee set goal
Does employee achieve goal?
Manager compliments employee for accomplishment
YES
Reinforcement Contingent on Consequence
Employee Task Behavior
Antecedent (precedes the behavior)
Consequences (result of the behavior)
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Categories of Reinforcers

• All reinforcers fall into one of two categories
• Primary Reinforcers -- Based upon the
  satisfaction of physiological needs, such as
  food, water, air, sex, escape from pain, etc.
  (Note that the text defines this as an event
  for which the individual already knows the
  value.)
• Secondary Reinforcers -- Learned reinforcers
  the text defines this as an event that once had
  neutral value but has taken on some positive or
  negative value for an individual because of past
  experience.

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Types of Contingencies of Reinforcement
Event is Added
Event is Removed
(best to use)
Positive reinforcement (increases behavior)
Pleasant Event
Omission (decreases behavior)
Unpleasant Event
Negative reinforcement (increases behavior)
Punishment (decreases behavior)
(worst to use)
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Rewards Used by Organizations
MATERIAL REWARDS Pay Pay raises Stock
options Profit sharing Deferred
compensation Bonuses/bonus plans Incentive
plans Expense accounts
SUPPLEMENTAL BENEFITS Company automobiles Health
insurance plans Pension contributions Vacation
and sick leave Recreation facilities Child care
support Club privileges Parental leave
STATUS SYMBOLS Corner offices Offices with
windows Carpeting Drapes Paintings Watches Rings P
rivate restrooms
SOCIAL/INTER- PERSONAL REWARDS Praise Developmenta
l feedback Smiles, pats on the back, and other
nonverbal signals Requests for suggestions Invitat
ions to coffee or lunch Wall plaques
REWARDS FROM THE TASK Sense of achievement Jobs
with more responsibility Job autonomy/self-directi
on Performing important tasks
SELF-ADMINISTERED REWARDS Self-congratulation Self
-recognition Self-praise Self-development
through expanded knowledge/skills Greater sense
of self-worth
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Negative Reinforcement

• Definition An unpleasant event is occurring
  which can be removed by emitting the desired
  behavior
• Differs from punishment, but may result from the
  fear of punishment
• Two types are identified
• Escape Learning An unpleasant event occurs
  until the employee emits an escape response to
  terminate it
• Avoidance Learning An employee prevents an
  unpleasant event from occurring by emitting the
  proper behavior Not in Text

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Potential Negative Effects of Punishment
Recurrence of undesirable employee behavior
Undesirable emotional reaction
Short-term decrease in frequency
of undesirable employee behavior
But leads to long-term
Aggressive, disruptive behavior
Undesirable employee behavior
Punishment by manager
Antecedent
Apathetic, noncreative performance
Fear of manager
Which tends to reinforce
High turnover and absenteeism
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Punishment and Interpersonal RelationsNot in
Text

• The inappropriate use of punishment increases
  with
• Anger and/or frustration on the part of the
  manager
• Inadequate interpersonal communication
• In such cases, this inappropriate punishment
  creates long term interpersonal problems, by
• Reducing trust
• Stifling motivation
• Undermining and/or destroying relationships

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How to Make Punishment Effective
Managers should

• Use the principles of contingent punishment,
  immediate punishment, and punishment size
• Praise in public, punish in private
• Develop alternative desired behavior
• Balance the use of pleasant and unpleasant events
• Use positive discipline (i.e., change behavior
  through reasoning, with an emphasis on personal
  responsibility or self control, rather than by
  imposing increasingly severe punishments)

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Guidelines for UsingContingencies of
Reinforcement
Managers should

• Not reward all employees the same (i.e., take
  individual differences into account to reward
  employees with consequences that they personally
  value, within the constraints of perceived
  equity)
• Consider consequences of both actions and
  non-actions
• Make employees aware of what behavior will be
  reinforced (and then be sure to reinforce it
  uniformly)
• Let employees know what they are doing wrong
• Not punish in front of others
• Make their response equal to workers behavior

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Schedules of Reinforcement

• Definition The determination of when reinforcers
  are applied after every response or only after
  some responses
• Two general categories of schedule are
• Continuous Reinforcement Every behavior is
  reinforced the simplest schedule
• Intermittent Reinforcement Only some behaviors
  are reinforced four types are identified in the
  text
• Fixed Interval based on a fixed time interval
• Fixed Ratio based on a fixed number of responses
• Variable Interval based on a variable time
  interval
• Variable Ratio based on a variable number of
  responses

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Comparisons of Schedules of Reinforcement
FORM OF REWARD
INFLUENCE ON PERFORMANCE
EFFECTS ON BEHAVIOR
SCHEDULE
Fixed interval
Reward on fixed time basis
Leads to average and irregular performance
Fast extinction of behavior
Fixed ratio
Reward tied to specific number of responses
Leads quickly to very high and stable
performance
Moderately fast extinction of behavior
Variable interval
Reward given after varying periods of time
Leads to moderately high and stable performance
Slow extinction of behavior
Variable ratio
Reward given for some behaviors
Leads to very high performance
Very slow extinction of behavior
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Social Learning Theory

• Learning viewed as knowledge acquisition through
  the mental processing of information
• Individuals learn voluntary behaviors by
  observing the behavior/consequences of others,
  cognitively processing that information, and then
  imitating, or not repeating, that behavior

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Five Dimensions ofSocial Learning Theory
Vicarious Learning
Symbolizing
Forethought
Self-Control
Self-Efficacy
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Explanation of theFive Dimensions of Social
Learning Theory

• People use symbols as cognitive models that serve
  to guide their behavior
• People use forethought to anticipate, plan, and
  guide their behaviors and actions
• People learn vicariously (indirectly) by
  observing the behavior of others and the real or
  imagined consequences of those behaviors
• People exhibit self-control by taking personal
  responsibility to learn new behavior even though
  there is no external pressure to do so
• People have differing levels of self-efficacy,
  which differentially influences their learning
  and behavior

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Self-Efficacy

• Definition Refers to the individuals confidence
  in their ability to perform a specific task in a
  specific situation
• Varies by people and tasks
• Strongly influences learning, with higher levels
  facilitating learning by enhancing goal setting,
  effort, and persistence toward success
• Managers can and should influence subordinates
  self-efficacy levels

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Self-Efficacy at Work
HIGH
I know I can do the job and have outstanding
quality

• Set goals
• Preserve/practice
• Creatively solve
• problems
• Visualize success
• Learn from failure

Past Accomplishments
Performance of Others
LOW
Self-efficacy

• Avoid difficult tasks
• Think of excuses
• for failing
• Develop low
• aspirations
• Quit
• Blame setbacks on
• lack of ability or luck

Emotional State
I dont think I can do the job on time and have
outstanding quality
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How Managers Can ApplySocial Learning Theory
Managers should

• Identify behaviors that lead to improved
  performance
• Select an appropriate model
• Make sure that employees have requisite skills
• Create a positive learning situation
• Provide positive consequences for successful
  performance (i.e., reinforcement)
• Develop organizational support for new behaviors
  (i.e., maintain proper contingencies of
  reinforcement)

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Henry Butts Oldsmobile Case Questions

• How effective is Henry Butts management
  strategy?
• Which component of this strategy is now illegal?
  What is used in its place?
• Identify or speculate on examples in the case of
  the following concepts from the chapter
• Operant learning social learning
• Secondary reinforcement
• Positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement,
  punishment
• Escape or avoidance learning
• Continuous, fixed ratio, and fixed or variable
  interval reinforcement schedules