Methodology

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Methodology

• Techniques of Social Research

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Goals of Science

• Objectivity
• Causation
• Prediction

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Objectivity

• Why are you studying this particular social
  problem?
• How will you be affected by what you see/find?

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Causation

• Human behaviour has purposes governed by how we
  feel about ourselves. Why someone does something
  may differ from why someone else does it.
• Will this affect on intentionality present a
  problem for your causality observations?

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Prediction

• After collecting information and analyzing it,
  can you make predictions?
• Can you offer solutions to control future
  actions?
• Prediction Flaws - people tend to be reflective
  of the situation.  They dont always act the same
  way forever.

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Study Methods

• Unobtrusive Measures (Indirect Method)
• Participant Observation (Direct Method)
• Survey Research

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1. Unobtrusive Measures

• Physical Trace Analysis - Observing remnants of
  past behaviour.
• Content Analysis Analysis of private records,
  government records, professional journals, the
  media, etc.
• Discourse Analysis Language - the way people
  speak and write.

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Physical Trace Analysis

• Let's say you would like to measure the
  popularity of various exhibits in a museum.  It
  may be possible to set up some type of mechanical
  measurement system that is invisible to the
  museum patrons.   In one study, the system was
  simple.  The museum installed new floor tiles in
  front of each exhibit they wanted a measurement
  on and, after a period of time, measured the
  wear-and-tear of the tiles as an indirect measure
  of patron traffic and interest.   We might be
  able to improve on this approach considerably
  using electronic measures.

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• Another study occurred in a study of radio
  station listening preferences.  Rather than
  conducting an obtrusive survey or interview about
  favorite radio stations, the researchers went to
  local auto dealers and garages and checked all
  cars that were being serviced to see what station
  the radio was currently tuned to.
• In a similar manner, if you want to know magazine
  preferences, you might rummage through the trash
  of your sample or even stage a door-to-door
  magazine recycling effort.

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• These examples illustrate one of the most
  important points about indirect measures you
  have to be very careful about the ethics of this
  type of measurement.  In an indirect measure you
  are, by definition, collecting information
  without the respondent's knowledge.  In doing so,
  you may be violating their right to privacy and
  you are certainly not using informed consent.  Of
  course, some types of information may be public
  and therefore not involve an invasion of privacy.

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• Just as with all measurement, however, you should
  be sure to attempt to estimate the reliability
  and validity of the measures. For instance,
  collecting radio station preferences at two
  different time periods and correlating the
  results might be useful for assessing test-retest
  reliability.  Or, you can include the indirect
  measure along with other direct measures of the
  same construct to help establish construct
  validity.

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Content Analysis

• Typically, the major purpose of content analysis
  is to identify patterns in text.
• This often involves the use of automated
  systems. 
• What words occur most often?
• What major themes seem to occur?

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Discourse Analysis or Definitional Mapping

• What can we tell about attitudes through the use
  and evolution of language?

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• The labels that people use for the types of
  individuals (or organizations, objects, or
  concepts) which affect them are often
  illuminating indicators of the nature of the
  group being studied. For instance, in a study of
  a prison the sociologist may encounter such terms
  as rats, peddlars, toughs, fags, square Johns,
  suckers, and so on.

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• In a study of the deep US south in the 1940s, a
  researcher found the following
• The upper-upper class divided the community into
  old aristocracy, other aristocracy, respectable
  people, good people but nobody, 'po whites.
• The lower-middle class divided the community into
  old aristocracy, people who think they are
  somebody, we poor folk, people poorer than us,
  and no 'counts.
• The objective lower-lower class divided the
  community into society, way high-ups, snobs
  trying to push up, and people just as good as
  anybody.

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2. Participant Observations

• Unknown Observer
• Unknown Participant
• Known Observer
• Known Participant

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Pros

• The researcher is presumed to gain understanding,
  perhaps more deeply than could be obtained, for
  example, by questionnaire items. Arguments in
  favor of this method include reliance on
  first-hand information, high face validity of
  data, and reliance on relatively simple and
  inexpensive methods.

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• Defenders of participant observation find greater
  bias in allegedly neutral instruments such as
  survey questionnaires. These, they say, involve
  the imposition of an externally conceived
  "scientific" measuring device (the questionnaire)
  on individuals who do not perceive reality
  according to that external conception (Bruyn,
  1966).

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Cons

• The downside of participant observation as a
  data-gathering technique is increased threat to
  the objectivity of the researcher, unsystematic
  gathering of data, reliance on subjective
  measurement, and possible observer effects
  (observation may distort the observed behavior).

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Unknown Observer

• No one knows you are involved as the Sociologist
  is strictly observing.
• Can be very limiting.

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Unknown Participant

• This type of study can be done when groups dont
  want to be studied or whose behaviour would
  change if it was known they were being studied.
• The observer assumes a role within the study
  sample, and thus assumes a high role of
  involvement.
• This is the least used method of study as it
  increases involvement as well as misleading ones
  target sample.

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Known Observer

• Can combine observation with interviewing.
• Used 90 of the time.
• May have a problem gaining everyones trust.

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Known Participant

• Someone is part of an ongoing community and then
  decides to study it.
• This is good if the sociologist is aware of their
  own biases as they can understand the problem and
  can explain it in great detail.
• As a method, it is frowned upon because it is
  vulnerable to the worst biases of subjectivity

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3. Survey Research

• Interviews
• Questionnaires

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Interview

• Ranges from little structure to highly
  structured.
• Successful interviewing requires specific
  interpersonal talents.

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• How well can I interpret body reactions, moments
  of silence, etc?
• How will features of my person affect people?
• How can I ask questions that avoid biasing the
  responses I get?

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• Strengths -  low observational effect and one can
  get why people do certain things.  It is
  unparallel in getting information from the past
  and there is a higher response rate.
• Weaknesses - Can become expensive and it takes a
  lot of time to only talk to a small sample. 

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Questionnaires

• Open Ended - General questions
• Close ended- Multiple choice
• Interview Administered - structured questionnaire
  by phone, email, etc.
• Mail out - self administered

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• Strengths One can quickly reach a large sample
  for little cost. It is also good at getting at
  sensitive subjects.
• Weaknesses A low response rate, most often
  40. There is some margin of error. Also, mail
  out questions tend to be short, simple and direct
  questions.