Water Resources

1
Water Resources

• Environmental Science 1

2
Groundwater Systems
Unconfined Aquifer Recharge Area
Evaporation and transpiration
Evaporation
Precipitation
Confined Recharge Area
Runoff
Flowing artesian well
Recharge Unconfined Aquifer
Stream
Well requiring a pump
Water table
Lake
Infiltration
Infiltration
Unconfined aquifer
Less permeable material such as clay
Confined aquifer
Confining impermeable rock layer
Fig. 11-3, p. 239
3
Groundwater Systems
4
Stress on Worlds River Basins
Europe
North America
Asia
Africa
South America
Australia
Stress
High
None
Fig. 11-6, p. 241
5
Politics and Ethics of Water

• Who should pay for the water?
• Public or private ownership

6
Tradeoffs of Withdrawing Groundwater
Trade-Offs
Withdrawing Groundwater
Advantages
Disadvantages
Good source of water for drinking and
irrigation Available year-round Exists almost
everywhere Renewable if not over- pumped or
contaminated No evaporation losses Cheaper to
extract than most surface waters
Aquifier depletion from over- pumping Sinking of
land (subsidence) when water removed Polluted
aquifiers unusable for decades or
centuries Saltwater intrusion into drinking
water supplies near coastal areas Reduced water
flows into streams, lakes, estuaries, and
wetlands Increased cost, energy use, and
contamination from deeper wells
Fig. 11-13, p. 246
7
Aquifer Depletion
Groundwater Overdrafts
High
Moderate
Minor or none
Fig. 11-14, p. 246
8
Saltwater Intrusion into Coastal Water Wells
Well contaminated with saltwater
Major irrigation well
Water table
Sea Level
Saltwater
Fresh groundwater aquifer
Seafloor
Interface
Saltwater Intrusion
Interface
Normal Interface
Fig. 11-15, p. 247
9
Groundwater Pollution Causes and Persistence

• Sources of groundwater pollution
• Slow flowing slow dilution and dispersion
• Consequences of lower dissolved oxygen
• Fewer bacteria to decompose wastes
• Cooler temperatures slow down chemical reactions
• Degradable and nondegradable wastes in
  groundwater

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Groundwater Pollution
Polluted air
Hazardous waste injection well
Pesticides and fertilizers
De-icing road salt
Coal strip mine runoff
Buried gasoline and solvent tank
Pumping well
Gasoline station
Water pumping well
Cesspool septic tank
Waste lagoon
Sewer
Landfill
Leakage from faulty casing
Accidental spills
Discharge
Unconfined freshwater aquifer
Confined aquifer
Confined freshwater aquifer
Groundwater flow
Fig. 11-26, p. 258
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Animation
Threats to aquifers interaction
12
Extent of Groundwater Pollution

• Not much is known about groundwater pollution
• Organic contaminants, including fuel leaks
• Arsenic
• Protecting groundwater Prevention is best

13
Preventing and Cleaning Up Pollution in
Groundwater
Solutions
Groundwater Pollution
Prevention
Cleanup
Find substitutes for toxic chemicals
Pump to surface, clean, and return to aquifer
(very expensive)
Keep toxic chemicals out of the environment
Install monitoring wells near landfills and
underground tanks
Inject microorganisms to clean up contamination
(less expensive but still costly)
Require leak detectors on underground tanks
Ban hazardous waste disposal in landfills and
injection wells
Pump nanoparticles of inorganic compounds to
remove pollutants (may be the cheapest, easiest,
and most effective method but is still being
developed)
Store harmful liquids in aboveground tanks with
leak detection and collection systems
Fig. 11-27, p. 259
14
Increasing Freshwater Supplies

• Dams and reservoirs
• Extracting groundwater
• Desalination
• Reducing water waste
• Importing food
• Importing water
• Catching precipitation

15
Tradeoffs of Large Dams and Reservoirs
Large losses of water through evaporation
Flooded land destroys forests or cropland
and displaces people
Downstream cropland and estuaries are deprived of
nutrient-rich silt
Migration and spawning of some fish are disrupted
Provides water for year-round irrigation
of cropland
Reservoir is useful for recreation and fishing
Can produce cheap electricity (hydropower)
Downstream flooding is reduced
Fig. 11-8, p. 243
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Ecological Services of Rivers
N a t u r a l C a p i t a l
Ecological Services of Rivers
Deliver nutrients to sea to help
sustain coastal fisheries Deposit silt that
maintains deltas Purify water Renew and
renourish wetlands Provide habitats for
wildlife
Fig. 11-9, p. 243
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California Water Project and Central Arizona
Project
CALIFORNIA
NEVADA
Shasta Lake
UTAH
Oroville Dam and Reservoir
Sacramento River
Lake Tahoe
Feather River
North Bay Aqueduct
Sacramento
San Francisco
Hoover Dam and Reservoir (Lake Mead)
South Bay Aqueduct
Fresno
San Joaquin Valley
Colorado River
San Luis Dam and Reservoir
Los Angeles Aqueduct
California Aqueduct
ARIZONA
Colorado River Aqueduct
Santa Barbara
Central Arizona Project
Los Angeles
Phoenix
Salton Sea
San Diego
Tucson
Fig. 11-10, p. 244
MEXICO
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How do people use water?
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Agricultural Uses

• Irrigation
• Pesticide Mixing

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Flood/Gravity Flow Irrigation
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urkey_Crop_Tour_files/ataturk/furrow.jpg
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Overhead/Center Pivot Irrigation
http//www.csiro.au/images/activities/OverheadIrri
gation.jpg
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Trickle/Drip Irrigation
http//members.tripod.com/vegstuff/images/trickle.
jpg
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Major Types of Irrigation Systems
Drip Irrigation (efficiency 90-95) Above- or
below-ground pipes or tubes deliver water to
individual plant roots.
Gravity Flow (efficiency 60 and 80 with surge
valves) Water usually comes from an aqueduct
system or a nearby river.
Center Pivot (efficiency 80 with low-pressure
sprinkler and 9095 with LEPA sprinkler) Water
usually pumped from underground and sprayed from
mobile boom with sprinklers.
Fig. 11-17, p. 249
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Do you SEE the Aral SEA?
Fig. 11-11, p. 245
25
Stranded Ship at the Aral Sea
Fig. 11-12, p. 245
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Industrial Use of Water

• 1 automobile 106,000 gallons
• 1 kg aluminum 2,800 gallons
• 1 kg paper 230 gallons
• 1 kg steel 60 gallons
• Warwick HS Pool 59,000 gallons
• Source Living in the Environment, by G. Tyler
  Miller

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Power Plant Cooling
DANSKAMMER POWER PLANT, NEBURGH, NY Photo
courtesy Poughkeepsie Journal
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Power Plant Cooling
http//www.oswego.org
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Power Plant Cooling
http//www.stocktoninfrared.com
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Domestic Water Use
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50
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Fluoridated Drinking Water
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The largest public water supply manager
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Old Croton Aqueduct
This elevated bridge supported the first
water supply line to the City.
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The Croton System can hold 86.9 billion
gallons Westchester, Putnam, and Dutchess
County in New York Fairfield County In
Connecticut
36
New Croton Reservoir spillway
http//www.3dparks.wr.usgs.gov
37
Croton River Dam
Dam completed in 1907
http//www.nynjctbotany.org
38
The Catskill System consists of the Schoharie
Reservoir (17.6 billion gallons) and the
Ashokan Reservoir (122.9 billion gallons) for a
total of 140.5 billion gallons of water, or 25
of the Citys water. Included are
Greene, Ulster, Delaware and Schoharie Counties
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Schoharie Reservoir
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Gilboa Dam
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The Shandaken Tunnel
Route 28, Allaben, NY
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Case Study
vs.
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Ashokan Reservoir

• Located in the towns of Hurley, Olive and
  Marbletown in Ulster County.
• The area of the reservoir encompasses 8,180 acres
  and is 12 miles long

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Resentment for the City
May 4, 1906 spelled a day that would forever
change the Catskills. The announcement came
that NYC was going to pay for the relocation of
Shokan, Glenford, West Shokan, West Hurley.
Other towns were not so lucky.
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Ashokan Reservoir
Dam construction in Olive, 9/7/1911 Cost of
the entire reservoir project 12,669,750
http//www.albany.edu
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Ashokan Reservoir
View from Wittenberg Mountain,
http//www.catskillpark100.org
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Double-take Drinking water electric
The Power Authority began operating its first
small hydro project on the Ashokan Reservoir,
located in Ulster County near Kingston, in
November 1982. Owned by New York City, the
reservoir provides water that powers two
turbine-generators to produce a total of 4,750
kw. After passing through the power project, this
water continues its trek downstate for public
consumption.
Courtesy New York Power Authority
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The greatest engineering at work

• The Catskill Aqueduct runs from the Ashokan
  Reservoir to the City on gravity. The Chelsea
  pumping station is used only during drought when
  the water must be pumped.

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The Catskill Aqueduct departs the Ashokan
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Catskill aqueduct construction
January 23, 1913
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Catskill aqueduct cross-section
At Grade Pressure
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Catskill aqueduct construction
Construction progresses near Peekskill
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Catskill Aqueduct construction
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• The Delaware System
• consists of four
• reservoirs
• Cannonsville
• Pepacton
• Neversink
• Rondout
• The Roundout Reservoir
• sparked heated debate
• because water from the
• Delaware River watershed
• Is actually diverted by
• three tunnels to the
• Hudson River watershed.

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Rondout Reservoir (1950)
Located in the Town of Neversink in Sullivan
County and in the Town of Warwarsing in Ulster
County
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Neversink Reservoir (1954)
The Neversink Dam harnesses the power of
the Neversink River, which originates on top of
Slide Mountain (highest in the Catskills, 4190
ft), and flows south through Port Jervis
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The Pepacton Valley in 1907 near Downsville, NY
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Pepacton Reservoir valley today
Largest 25 of NYC supply (1955) Located on
the East Branch of the Delaware Located in
the towns of Andes, Colchester, Middletown In
Delaware County
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Cannonsville Reservoir (1964) near Walton
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How water gets to the tap

• Water treatment plants only filter 10 15 of
  NYC drinking water
• The only water filtered is in the Croton
  Watershed.
• Chlorine is added as a disinfectant
• Fluoride is added to prevent in the development
  of tooth decay.
• Gravity feeds all buildings less than 90 stories
  the landlord of the building is responsible for
  pumping above this point.

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NYC the EPA Clean Water/Clean Air Act

• According to the 1993 Clean Water/Clean Air Act,
  NYC was determined to be out of compliance with
  drinking water filtration quality.
• However, the City appealed the EPA stating that
  practices of watershed management were bringing
  the City water up to standards.
• Based on this argument, the EPA issued the City a
  FILTRATION AVOIDANCE AGREEMENT (FAD) from 1993
  to 1996.

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NYC Filtration Avoidance Determination (NYC FAD)

• In 1996, it was determined by the EPA that
  critical watershed activities had not been met a
  new permit was not issued and the city faced
  serious fines. NYC blamed NYS DEC for not
  cooperating with land acquisition or watershed
  regulations.
• In January 1997, an agreement was made between
  DEP, DEC, NYS, EPA and the watershed towns.
• A five-year FAD was issued in November 1997,
  pending conditions.

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NYC FAD 1997 Conditions

• Acquire more watershed property
• Adopt strong watershed rules regulations,
  including implementation.
• Watershed protection program

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NYC FAD

• Mid-course review occurred in 2000 to see if
  progress was being made.
• December 15, 2001 proposal presented for a
  long-term FAD that builds further on existing
  programs
• November 2002 the EPA adopts the FAD proposal
  with one additional stipulation a U.V. plant to
  be online by 2010.

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Condition 1 - Property

• NYC Watershed is 1,997 mi2.
• Option 1 Purchase the property. VERY .
• Option 2 Conservation Easements.
• To date 250 million has been spent on one of the
  two above options.

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Condition 1 Property

• The City has been required to solicit private
  owners of 355,000 acres of land.
• Farmland acquisition is followed up by the
  Watershed Agricultural Council (WAC).
• To date, 45,000 acres of property acquired.
• Land is priority ranked.
• Should government pay taxes? YES

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Condition 2 R/R and implementation

• Most staff-intensive component
• Costs BIG
• Long-term needed.
• Requires maintenance
• BIG Commitment
• -Watershed Agricultural Council
• -Stream Management Program

76

• Incorporated contracted agency (1993) by NYC DEP
  to oversee implementation of watershed protection
  programs on farms and in forests.
• Met with a great deal of skepticism by landowners
  FEAR.
• By nature, farmland follows a stream through a
  valley.

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Which would you rather see in your drinking water?
78

• KEY PHILOSOPHY OF THE WATERSHED AGRICULTURAL
  PROGRAM
• DO NO HARM
• There has been a great fear that if strict
  regulations were put in place and the funds were
  not available to help offset costs, farms would
  simply sell out to developers.
• ONE FARMERS OPINION
• I dont drink NYC water. I farm this farm the
  same way my family has for centuries and we have
  stayed in business. If I change now, who knows
  what may happen, and the cost of what you are
  asking (telling) me to do is never going to
  happen. If you make me do it, I quit. So, what
  is in it for me?

79

• The WAP started with five Demonstration
  Projects located in each of the five counties of
  the NYC watershed. Purpose to demonstrate
  whole farm planning and the encourage others to
  sign up for implementation. The WAC partnered
  with the local Soil Water Conservation
  Districts for assistance.

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The WAC inventories and identifies potential
sources of water runoff in agricultural settings.
The WAC looks at manure handling and storage,
barnyard runoff, milk house waste, silage
leachate, and pesticide mixing and storage. These
implementations require the use of heavy
equipment, engineering and funding by NYC.
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100 Cost-sharing
82
The WAC will subcontract the USDA NRCS and SWCD
staff for technical assistance Manure storage
facility
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The goal of the WAC is to implement
BMPs Best Management Practices
84

• Can you address the watershed concern in each of
  the following photos?

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• In accordance with the FAD, the WAC was required
  to gain 85 participation of farmers in the
  watershed. As of today, 91 of all farmers are
  participating and ten demonstration projects have
  been completed.
• RIGHT
• Watershed Agricultural Council Headquarters
• on State Route 10 in Walton.

96
Stream Management Program (SMP)

• Contracts with SWCDs began in 1995.
• Deadline for initial implementation was 1996.
• Demonstration Project sites
• -Batavia Kill, Greene County
• -Schoharie Creek, Greene County (in progress)
• -Broadstreet Hollow, Ulster/Greene
• -Chestnut Creek, Sullivan (in progress)
• -East Branch Delaware River (prop.)
• -West Kill, Greene County (prop.)
• -Woodland Valley, Ulster County
• -Stony Clove, Ulster/Greene County (in progress)

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Project Location Greene County
Orange County
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Project Location Town of Lexington
SITE
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The 1996 event
The stream moved over 30 in just two days. One
home was lost, others threatened
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Stream Entrenchment
102
1999 Tropical Storm Floyd

• Groundwater Saturation caused an artesian mud
  boil, essentially a mud volcano in the middle
  of the stream.
• This was brought on by increased groundwater flow
  under the stream bed as the stream moved to a new
  channel following 1996.

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ARTESIAN WELLS -Drilled 35-40 deep -filled
with gravel -capped with bentonite -Captures
and filters muddy water boiling to the surface
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The clay base was excavated and disposed in
another area far from the site. Gravel and rock
replaced the clay.
107
Near the homes, a metal wall was installed for
added protection as a matter of need.
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10 HP pumps were used to divert stream flow
throughout the stream project.
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Large boulders were brought in to make step pools
for the stream for a more gradual flow that is
less erosive.
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Boulders are placed for Step Pools constructed in
the shape of a V
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A check of the stream channel
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AFTERMATH Pool 1 during a high flow event
December 17, 2000. The goal of the V-shape
pools is to divert the energy to the center of
the stream, away from banks that could erode.
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December 2001 following a repair
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Restored area with cross vane
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BSH in 2001
House nearly lost to the stream
Final construction includes willow plantings for
a riparian buffer
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Wastewater Treatment

• Under the FAD, NYC is required to bring 103 WWTP
  up to tertiary treatment standards.
• NYC DEP owns six WWTP in the watershed.
• Some communities do not have sewers there are 15
  targeted towns that will receive 10 million from
  NYC for the (1) installation of a central sewage
  treatment facility or, if the town is sparsely
  populated (2) NYC will pay up to 10 million per
  town to be dispersed to residents for septic
  replacements plus all enrolled residents will
  receive 100 annually for maintenance costs.

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Pine Hill WWTP
123
Wastewater Treatment Outside the Watershed

• By taking water from the Delaware, NYC is
  increasing the pollutants in the Delaware (same
  amount of pollutants, less water).
• As a result of the EPA CW-CA Act and the FAD, NYC
  is responsible for implementing Wastewater
  Treatment facilities outside of the Watershed,
  anywhere in NYS along the Delaware River because
  the Delaware serves as a water supply to
  residents in New Jersey.

124
Wastewater Treatment along the Delaware

• In Orange County, the City of Port Jervis and
  Town of Deer Park are within the jurisdiction of
  NYC DEP Wastewater Treatment.
• The citizens of these areas have FREE wastewater
  treatment until the FAD is renewed in 2013.
• The PJ WWTP is currently under major renovation
  to bring the plant up to tertiary standards.

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Urban Channelization
126
Flooding After Deforestation of a Hillside
Forested Hillside
Oxygen released by vegetation
Diverse ecological habitat
Evapotranspiration
Trees reduce soil erosion from heavy rain and wind
Agricultural land
Steady river flow
Vegetation releases water slowly and reduces
flooding
Leaf litter improves soil fertility
Tree roots stabilize soil and aid water flow
Fig. 11-23a, p. 253
127
Flooding After Deforestation of a Hillside
After Deforestation
Tree plantation
Evapotranspiration decreases
Roads destabilize hillsides
Ranching accelerates soil erosion by water and
wind
Winds remove fragile topsoil
Agriculture land is flooded and silted up
Gullies and landslides
Heavy rain leaches nutrients from soil and erodes
topsoil
Rapid runoff causes flooding
Silt from erosion blocks rivers and reservoirs
and causes flooding downstream
Fig. 11-23b, p. 253
128
Runoff and Road Salt
PLAY VIDEO
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Table 11-1, p. 254
130
Pollution in Streams
Normal clean water organisms (trout, perch,
bass, mayfly, stonefly)
Trash fish (carp, gar, leeches)
Fish absent, fungi, sludge worms, bacteria (anaero
bic)
Trash fish (carp, gar, leeches)
Normal clean water organisms (trout, perch,
bass, mayfly, stonefly)
8 ppm
Types of organisms
8 ppm
Dissolved oxygen (ppm)
Clean Zone
Biological oxygen demand
Recovery Zone
Septic Zone
Decomposition Zone
Clean Zone
Fig. 11-24, p. 256
131
Animation
Stream pollution animation
132
Oligotrophic and Eutrophic Lakes
Fig. 11-25, p. 257
133
Al Turi Landfill, Goshen
134
Groundwater Pollution
Polluted air
Hazardous waste injection well
Pesticides and fertilizers
De-icing road salt
Coal strip mine runoff
Buried gasoline and solvent tank
Pumping well
Gasoline station
Water pumping well
Cesspool septic tank
Waste lagoon
Sewer
Landfill
Leakage from faulty casing
Accidental spills
Discharge
Unconfined freshwater aquifer
Confined aquifer
Confined freshwater aquifer
Groundwater flow
Fig. 11-26, p. 258
135
Typical Septic Tank System
Septic tank with manhole (for cleanout)
Household wastewater
Nonperforated pipe
Distribution box (optional)
Gravel or crushed stone
Drain field
Vent pipe
Perforated pipe
Fig. 11-32, p. 264
136
Primary and Secondary Sewage Treatment
Primary
Secondary
Chlorine disinfection tank
Bar screen
Grit chamber
Settling tank
Aeration tank
Settling tank
To river, lake, or ocean
Sludge
Activated sludge
(kills bacteria)
Raw sewage from sewers
Air pump
Sludge digester
Disposed of in landfill or ocean or applied to
cropland, pasture, or rangeland
Sludge drying bed
Fig. 11-33, p. 265
137
Ecological Wastewater Treatment
Fig. 11-34, p. 265
138
Peekskill Sewage Treatment
PLAY VIDEO