In Mixed Company Chapter Eight

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In Mixed Company Chapter Eight

• Effective Decision Making and Problem Solving

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Multiple Sequence Model Phases of Decision
Making

• The multiple sequence model pictures groups
  moving along three activity tracks task,
  relational, and topic.

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Multiple Sequence Model Phases of Decision
Making

• Groups on the unitary sequence path proceed in
  the same step-by-step fashion toward a decision.
• The second path is called the complex cyclic,
  these groups engage in repeated cycles of
  focusing on the problem, then the solution and
  back again to the problem.

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Multiple Sequence Model Phases of Decision
Making

• Solution oriented, here the group launches into
  discussion of solutions with little focus on an
  analysis of the problem.

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Functional Perspective Being Systematic

• Discussion that follow some systematic procedure
  tend to be more productive and result in better
  decisions than relatively unstructured
  discussions.
• The drawbacks to unstructured group discussion
  include aimless deliberations that are
  time-consuming and inefficient premature focus
  on solutions.
• These five functions are problem analysis,
  establishment of evaluation criteria, generation
  of alternative solutions, evaluation of positive
  consequences of solutions, and evaluation of
  negative consequences of solutions.

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Problem Identification Whats the Question

• The problem should be formulated into an
  open-ended question identifying what type of
  problem the group must consider.
• Once the problem is phrased as a questions of
  fact, value, or policy, and ambiguous terms
  should be defined.

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Problem Analysis Causes and Effects

• The group researches and gathers information on
  the problem defined, tries to determine how
  serious the problem is what harm or effect
  problem produces, and what causes the problem.
• Although analyzing the problem is important and
  should be undertaken before exploring potential
  solutions, analysis paralysis, or bogging down by
  analyzing the problem too much, can also thwart
  effect decision making.
• It prevents a group from ever getting on with
  business and making a decision.

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Solution Criteria Setting Standards

• Criteria are standards by which decisions and
  solutions to problems can be evaluated.
• The group should establish criteria for
  evaluating solutions before solutions are
  suggested.
• Not all criteria, however, however, are created
  equal. The group must consider the relevance and
  appropriateness of each criterion.
• The criteria should be ranked in order of
  priority.

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Solution SuggestionsGenerating Alternatives

• The group brainstorms possible solutions without
  evaluating any suggestions until the best
  alternatives are likely to have emerged.
• Once a list of ideas has been generated, the
  group should clarify any ambiguous or confusing
  ideas. Ideas that overlap should be consolidated
  into a single idea.

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Solution Evaluation and Selection Deciding by
Criteria

• Explore both the merits and demerits of suggested
  solutions.
• Consider each solution in terms of the criteria
  established earlier.
• There are three decision-making methods that are
  used to make solution choices majority rule,
  minority rule, or consensous.

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Solution Implementation Follow-Through

• A common failing of decision making groups is
  that once they arrive at a decision there is not
  follow-through.
• Force field analysis is none method for planning
  implementation of a group solution or decision.
• Using force field analysis groups brainstorm a
  list of driving forces, those that encourage
  change, and restraining forces those that resist
  change.

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Five ways to reduce resistance to change and
consequent restraining forces impeding solution
implementation

• People are more likely to accept change when they
  have a had a part in the planning and decision
  making.
• Changes are more likely to be accepted if they do
  not threaten group members.
• Changes are more likely to be accepted when the
  need for change affects individuals directly.
• There will less resistance to change when the
  changes is open to revision and modification.
• The three factors (degree, rate, and
  desirability) affecting a groups ability to
  adapt to change in a system should be considered.

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Program Evaluation Review Technique (PERT)

• Determine what the final step should look like.
• Specify any events that must occur before the
  final goal is realized.
• If necessary, construct a diagram of the process
  to trace the progress of implementation.
• Generate a list of activities, resources, and
  materials that are required between events.
• Develop a timeline for implementation.
• Match the total time estimate for implementation
  of the solution with any deadlines.
• Specify which group members will have which
  responsibilities.

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Majority Rule

• Deliberations are significantly shorter and less
  conscientious.
• Minority factions participate less frequently and
  are less influential, underutilized in the
  groups resources
• When issues are not very important, when
  decisions must be made relatively quickly, and
  when commitment of all members to the final
  decision is unimportant, majority rule can be
  useful.

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Minority Rules-Several Types

• The group designates one of its members as an
  expert to make decisions. Designation by expert
  is mostly ineffective.
• Designated authority makes the decision for the
  group, either after heating discussion from group
  members or without their consultation.
• Minority rule can take the form of a forceful
  faction making a decision for the group by
  dominating less forceful members.

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Unanimity Rule Consensus

• The unanimity rule governs some groups, juries
  are an example.
• Consensus is a state of mutual agreement among
  members of a group where all legitimate concerns
  of individuals have been addressed to the
  satisfaction of the group.

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True Consensus

• True consensus requires agreement, commitment,
  and satisfaction. All members msut to agree with
  the groups final decision, but consensus does not
  require adoption of every members personal
  preference.
• If all members can agree on an acceptable
  alternative, even if this alternative is not each
  members first choice, then you have come close
  to achieving a true consensus.

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True Consensus

• Groups that use a consensus approach tend to
  produce better decisions than groups using other
  decision rules because full discussion of issues
  is required, every group member must be convinced
  that the decision is a good one, and minority
  members are heard.
• Achieving unanimous agreement from group members
  is very difficult, especially when the issues are
  emotionally charged and time for decision making
  is limited.
• Consensus is increasingly unlikely as groups
  grow larger.

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Guidelines to Achieve Consensus

• Follow the standard agenda.
• Establish a cooperative climate.
• Identify the pluses and minuses of potential
  decisions under consideration.
• Discuss all concerns of group members and attempt
  to resolve every one.
• Avoid adversarial, win-lose arguments
• Request a stand aside- when an individual does
  not block the group choice.
• Avoid conflict-suppressing techniques such as
  coin-flipping.
• If consensus is impossible despite these
  guidelines seek a supermajority (minimum of 2/3
  agreement)

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Increasing Constructive Participation Jump
starting low-participators

• When low-participators offer contributions,
  indicate that their participation is valued by
  actively listening to what that person as to say,
  and thank them for their contribution.
• Make issues and problems for discussion relevant
  to the interests of low-participators.
• Give low-participators responsibility with
  certain tasks.
• Establish a cooperative group climate.
• Encourage devils advocacy and dialectal inquiry.

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Complaints Associated with Group Meetings

• Unclear purpose of the meeting.
• Participants are unprepared.
• Key individuals are absent or late.
• Discussion drifts into irrelevant conversation on
  unrelated topics.
• Some participants dominate the conversation and
  stifle discussion.
• Decisions made at meetings are not implemented.

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The ChairControlling the Meeting

• Dont call a meeting unless there is not good
  alternative
• Contact every participant
• Prepare a clear agenda and distribute to all
  members 3 days in advance
• Move the agenda forward
• Designate specific time allotment for every
  discussion item
• Reserve a few minutes at the end of the meeting
  to see if objectives were met.
• Distribute the minutes of the meeting as soon as
  possible.

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Evaluating Information Applying Criteria

• Is the information reliable?
• Is the information as up to day as possible?
• Does the information support the claims made?
• A single example or stat may or may not
  accurately reflect whats true in this instance.

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Guidelines for Determining Statistics

• The sample size (in polls, surveys, and studies)
• Samples must be randomly selected, not
  self-selected.
• Sufficiency (when enough is really enough)
• What type of claim are you making?
• Extraordinary claims require extraordinary proof.

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Creative Problem Solving

• Creativity is more perspiration than inspiration.
• Creativity is spurred by challenges
• Creativity flourishes in cooperative, not
  competitive environment.
• Creativity requires sound ideas
• Creativity requires many ideas
• Creativity requires breaking mindsets and
  thinking outside the box.

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Competent communicators explore possible
solutions to conflicts of interests

• Conflicting parties should formulate a clear
  statement of issues and goals.
• Parties in conflict must determine whether a real
  conflict of interests exists
• The parties in disagreement should stick to their
  goals but remain flexible regarding the means of
  attaining them.
• If stalemated concede on low-priority issues or
  discard low-priority interests.