Hmmm

1
Hmmm?

• Conventional wisdom has it that agricultural
  education was started by the Smith-Hughes Act in
  1917. However, two years before the passage of
  the Smith-Hughes Act, 90,708 students were
  enrolled in agriculture classes in 4,665 high
  schools. If the Smith-Hughes Act started
  secondary agricultural education how can
  agriculture in all these schools be explained?

2
Hmmmmmmm?

• Conventional wisdom has it that extension
  education was started by the Smith-Lever Act in
  1914. However, North Carolina had over 20 farm
  demonstration agents in 1909. How could this be?

3
The Hatch Act 1887

• An act to establish agricultural experiment
  stations in connection with the colleges
  established in the several States under the
  provisions of an act approved July second,
  eighteen hundred and sixty-two, and of the acts
  supplementary thereto.

4
The Hatch Act 1887

• Be it enacted by the Senate and House of
  Representatives of the United States of America
  in Congress assembled, That in order to aid in
  acquiring and diffusing among the people of the
  United States useful and practical information on
  subjects connected with agriculture, and to
  promote scientific investigation and experiment
  respecting the principles and applications of
  agricultural science, there shall be established,
  under direction of the college or colleges or
  agricultural department of colleges in each State
  or Territory establisheda department to be known
  and designed as an "agricultural experiment
  station"

5
How was information diffused?

• Farmers Institutes (forerunner of extension)
• Teaching agriculture in schools

More about that in a few minutes
6
The Hatch Act 1887

• Section two of the legislation listed 10 specific
  areas of agriculture to be researched including
  crops, livestock nutrition, and fertilization.
  The final statement in the section read "and such
  other researches or experiments bearing directly
  on the agricultural industry of the United States
  as may in each case be deemed advisable This
  statement, identifying what should be
  investigated, could be interpreted broadly.

7
AAACES

• Six months after the passage of the Hatch Act the
  land-grant university presidents and agricultural
  professors who had been meeting in a loosely
  structured fashion before the passage of the act
  met in Washington to formalize the establishment
  of an association to improve communications and
  coordinate activities for agricultural
  instruction and experimentation. This group
  became known as the American Association of
  Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations
  (AAACES).

8
The OES

• AAACES lobbied for the establishment of a central
  office in the USDA to coordinate the work of the
  various stations and to serve as a medium of
  communication among the various experiment
  stations. As a result of their effort, the Office
  of Experiment Stations (OES) was established in
  October of 1888 as a special branch of the
  Department of Agriculture with an appointed
  Director as its head.

9
Other Good Work Begins

• The first two directors of the OES, Wilbur A.
  Atwater and Abram W. Harris, performed their
  duties in a perfunctory, business-like manner.
  However, when Alfred C. True became director of
  the Office in 1893, the OES started efforts that
  Wayne Fuller describes as " other good works. One
  of these was the promotion of the study of nature
  and agriculture in the country schools."

10
A. C. True

• Had once been a school teacher in Vermont

11
1893 OES Directors Report

• True described agricultural education in France,
  Belgium and other countries and wrote, the farm
  boy or girl in the rural high school should be
  taughtthe theory and practice of agriculture.
  This would result in more contented and
  prosperous rural communities.

12
In Minnesota

• In 1889, after widespread dissatisfaction with
  the college level teaching of agriculture at the
  University of Minnesota, a school of less than
  college grade was established on the grounds of
  the agricultural experiment station. Agriculture
  was to be taught on a practical and scientific
  basis.

13
The Minnesota School

• The school faculty of nine included five from the
  experiment station. Students were involved in the
  work of the experiment station. True noted that
  "This school and the experiment station were so
  successful that the legislature from time to time
  appropriated generously for buildings, equipment,
  and current expenses. For a considerable period
  the schools of agriculture and dairy overshadowed
  the collegiate work."

14
Minnesota

• Director True was aware of the secondary
  agricultural education efforts in Minnesota. In
  his 1895 report, True indicated the Minnesota
  school was a great success and stated that "When
  the people realize more clearly the desirability
  of separating elementary and higher courses in
  agriculture, as in other subjects, they will
  undoubtedly provide means for the establishment
  of lower schools in which agriculture shall be
  taught."

15
Justification

• In his 1897 report, True justified his actions in
  promoting agricultural education. After
  describing the current activities in various
  states regarding secondary agricultural
  education, True stated that "It is believed that
  it is clearly within the province of this
  Department, under the organic act, by which it
  was established, to exert itself actively in the
  promotion of those enterprises which tend to
  promote the general welfare of the farmer"

16
Alabama

• Secondary agricultural schools and branch
  agricultural experiment stations were established
  in Alabama in 1889. Instruction in practical and
  scientific agriculture was offered at nine
  schools one in each congressional district. The
  experiment station work was carried on at each
  school under the auspices of the Alabama
  Polytechnic Institute.

17
Alabama

• In 1907, Governor Braxton Comer spoke highly of
  the agricultural schools and accompanying
  experiment stations and urged the legislature to
  increase appropriations for each school. The
  legislature responded by appropriating 4,500 to
  each school with the provision that 750 be spent
  on experiments.

18
True Goes Public

• In an article in the Yearbook of Agriculture for
  1897 True described the agricultural schools in
  Minnesota and Alabama and then advocated the
  establishment of courses in agriculture in
  schools near the farmers' homes. True urged the
  farmers to take an active role in the schools and
  to let the school leaders know what the "real"
  needs of the farmers were.

19
Yearbook of Agriculture

• Nearly every issue of the Yearbook of Agriculture
  from 1897 until the passage of the Smith-Hughes
  Act contained an article about the need for,
  development of, or progress in agricultural
  education in the public schools. These articles
  were authored by True or Crosby.

20
True Turns Up the Heat

• The Office of Experiment Stations started an
  active campaign in different parts of the country
  to promote the introduction of agriculture into
  the secondary and elementary schools around the
  turn of the century. In 1901 True wrote that
  "'The time seems favorable ... for the Department
  to take a more active part in encouraging the
  introduction of nature study and elementary
  agriculture into the curricula of rural schools.

21
The Ammunition

• The ammunition for the campaign consisted of
  publications, addresses at educational and
  farmers' meetings, and correspondence and
  conferences with educators and others interested
  in this matter.

22
1901 Was a Very Good Year

• In 1901, Dick Crosby, was added to the staff of
  the Office of Experiment Stations as a special
  assistant to the Director in work related to
  agricultural education. Crosby and True
  vigorously promoted the teaching of agriculture
  in the public schools

23
AAACES Activity

• Both Crosby and True were involved with the
  activities of the American Association of
  Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. At
  the AAACES meeting in 1895 a standing committee
  on methods of teaching agriculture had been
  established. The committee prepared annual
  reports on various topics of concern. The first
  six reports were concerned with collegiate level
  education in agriculture.

24
The Rubber Hits the Road

• The AAACES seventh report, published in 1902,
  showed how secondary courses in agriculture could
  be incorporated into existing high school
  courses. The report stated that "Agriculture has
  thus far been almost entirely neglected in the
  high school programs, and it is high time that
  the friends of agricultural education should make
  a systematic effort to have the claims of this
  fundamental industry acknowledged and satisfied
  in the curricula of the public schools.

25
Experiment Station Record

• In September of 1905 a department of agricultural
  education was established in the Experiment
  Station Record. Reports on agricultural education
  were published here so that workers in the
  various stations could stay informed of
  developments in the field.

26
Infiltration the Establishment

• A standing committee on instruction in
  agriculture and mechanical arts of secondary
  grade was established by the AAACES in the fall
  of 1905. Director True was the chairman of the
  committee and Dick Crosby was the secretary. One
  of the first goals of this committee was to get
  the National Education Association (NEA) to
  recognize the need for agricultural education in
  the secondary schools.

27
Infiltration Succeeds

• Crosby attended the NEA convention in 1907 and
  made a speech about agricultural education. He
  also presented a petition to the NEA Board of
  Trustees signed by 28 prominent educators and
  active NEA members asking for the establishment
  of a Department of Rural and Agricultural
  Education in the NEA. Permission was granted to
  start the new department. This provided a
  platform within the NEA for Crosby, True, and
  others to advance the cause of agricultural
  education.

28
Getting in High Gear

• In 1906 a division of agricultural education was
  established in the Office of Experiment Stations.
  Dick Crosby was put in charge of the work. The
  division had several employees and was very
  active in promoting and supporting agricultural
  education through consultations, research,
  curriculum guides, and instructional materials.

29
Agricultural Education Grows

• Many states were establishing public school
  instruction in agriculture in the 1906-1917 era
  and were searching for instructional materials
  and curriculum guides. True reported that the
  Office of Experiment Stations served as "a
  clearing house of information and advice
  regarding the courses, personnel, equipment,
  illustrative material, and literature for
  secondary instruction in agriculture."

30
Maturation

• The OES, under True and Crosbys guidance,
  established agricultural education in the public
  schools in the United States.
• Their efforts could easily fill 40-50 more slides.

31
Farmers Institutes
32
Farmers Institutes

• Found in nearly every state in the late 1800s
• Structure varied from state to state

33
Farmers Institutes

• Ohio (1847) - County agricultural societies sent
  lecturers out on request

34
Farmers Institutes

• New York (1842-43)- State agricultural society
  started a program of itinerant lecturers

35
Farmers Institutes

• Institutes were held in counties, occasionally
  there would be 2-3 in a county
• Meetings were 1-3 days in length, 2-3 days at
  first, then one day
• Variety of speakers featured
• Typically balanced between local people and
  outside experts

36
Farmers Institutes Program

• Welcome by local dignitary
• Overview by Institute official
• Speakers followed by question and answer period
• Speeches were normally 30 minutes or less
• Question box used to overcome hesitancy to ask
  questions

37
Farmers Institutes

• Lunch prepared by the ladies (a time to
  socialize)
• Afternoon session consisted of more speakers

38
Program, cont.

• If there was an evening session, it was often
  light hearted entertainment (had to entice
  farmers back from doing their evening chores)

39
Farmers Institutes

• Recreational activities were provided for young
  people (baseball, games, races)
• Institutes were scheduled for down time on the
  farms

40
Farmers Institutes

• Once a year there was often a state wide Farmers
  Institute or Round-up

41
Farmers Institutes

• By 1900 Farmers Institutes were operated
  primarily by
• Land-grant colleges (19 states)
• State Departments of Agriculture (17 states)
• Counties (Delaware, Iowa)
• Independent Board (Minnesota)

42
Typical Topics

• How to increase profits in dairying
• Maintaining soil fertility
• Are sheep profitable?
• Potato growing
• Good citizenship
• National Grange
• Rural Roads

43
Speakers

• University Professors and Experiment Station
  staff
• Farmers often had a deep suspicion of scientists
  and few trained men could speak in a manner
  intelligible to the farmer
• Well known farmers in the state
• Local farmers
• State Department of Agriculture staff

44
Farmers Institutes

• American Association of Farmers Institute
  Workers organized - 1896

45
Farmers Institutes

• 1903 - Office of Experiment Stations (USDA) added
  an Farmers Institute specialist
• 1903 - Congress appropriated 5,000 for Farmers
  Institute work

46
Farmers Institute (NC)

• State law in 1887 called for Farmers Institutes
  to be held in every county every two years.
• State Board of Agriculture was responsible.
• No funds were appropriated.
• Some institutes were held in 1890.

47
Farmers Institute (NC)

• New Farmers Institute law passed in 1893.
• State Board of Agriculture was responsible.
• 500 appropriated.
• State treasurer wouldnt release the money, plans
  were cancelled in 1893-94.
• 45 institutes were held in 1895-96

48
Farmers Institutes

• Tait Butler and T. B. Parker were two early
  directors
• Boys corn growing contest started in 1906
• Educational reform was often a topic at Farmers
  Institute meetings

49
Womens Institutes (NC)

• A separate Womens Institute program was started
  in 1906
• Program conducted at the same time as the
  Farmers Institute
• Some joint meetings were held
• The NC Womens Institutes claim to be the first
  in the nation

50
Train Institutes in NC

• 1908 - First Demonstration Train
• 1909 - Two Demonstration Trains
• Bladenboro to Rutherfordton, 800 miles round
  trip, SeaboardAir Line Rail Road - 30
  institutes held
• Hillsboro to Murphy - 900 miles round trip,
  Southern Railway - 27 institutes held

51
Demonstration Trains

• One car was equipped with modern kitchen
  appliances
• Womens Institutes were held in this car
• Equipment was demonstrated and lectures given

52
Demonstration Trains

• One car contained farm implements
• At each stop, the workings of the implements were
  explained
• If a team was available, the implements were
  demonstrated

53
Demonstration Trains

• The trains continued in popularity fora number
  of years.
• A provision in the Smith-Lever Act doomed the
  trains.

54
Colored Institutes in NC

• 1909 - Two (2) institutes were conducted for
  colored people. There were 247 institutes for
  white folks. After 1909 there were 2-4 institutes
  for colored farmers.

55
NC Farmers Institutes
56
NC Counties with Institutes
57
The End

• Two factors contributed to the demise of
  Farmers Institutes
• Establishment of the Cooperative Extension
  Service
• World War I