Module 1 Introduction to Mitigation Under the UNFCCC

1
Module 1Introduction to Mitigation Under the
UNFCCC

• The science of climate change.
• Definition and scope of mitigation
• Contributions of IPCC Working Group 3 (WG3) on
  mitigation in the Third Assessment Report (TAR).
• The UNFCCC Guidelines on mitigation assessment.
• The potential benefits of mitigation
• Interactions between mitigation and development
• Integrating mitigation and adaptation

2
Module 1a

• The Science of Climate Change

3
Our Atmosphere is Changing

• During the last century, the atmospheric
  concentration of greenhouse gases and their
  radiative forcing have continued to rise as a
  result of human activities.
• Global average surface temperatures have
  increased by about 0.6 C.
• Global average sea level has risen and ocean heat
  content has increased.
• The balance of evidence suggests a discernable
  human influence on global climate (IPCC, SAR,
  1995)
• There is new and stronger evidence that most of
  the warming observed over the last 50 years is
  attributable to human activities (IPCC, TAR,
  2001)
• CO2 Concentrations and Global Average
  Temperatures Will Continue to Rise

• Pre-industrial level 280 ppm
• Current level 360 ppm
• Level in 2100 700 ppm with large uncertainty

Source IPCC, 2001
4
Some Expected Impacts

• Sea level projected to rise 0.09 to 0.88m by 2100
  with significant regional variations.
• Extreme weather events are projected to increase.
• Impacts on biodiversity generally negative.
• Socioeconomic systems could show net economic
  benefits for small amounts of warming, but
  potentially large negative impacts under greater
  warming.
• Increased water availability in some water-scarce
  regions, but decreased water availability in many
  water scarce regions.
• Initially increased agricultural productivity in
  some mid-latitude regions, but decreased in the
  tropics and sub-tropics.
• Significant disruptions of ecosystems from fire,
  drought, pest infestation, species invasion, etc.
• Changes in productivity and composition of
  ecological systems, with coral reefs, boreal
  forests, arctic and montane regions being
  particularly vulnerable.
• Increased risk of floods, potentially displacing
  tens of millions of people.
• Increased incidence of heat stress mortality, and
  vector-borne diseases.
• Some impacts effectively irreversible over many
  generations (thermohaline circulation, Ice
  sheets, migration of plant species).
  Thermohaline disruption is uncertain, but ice
  sheet melt and plant species migration are highly
  probable.

5
Developing Countries are the Most Vulnerable to
Climate Change

• Impacts are worse - already more flood and
  drought prone and a large share of the economy is
  in climate sensitive sectors.
• Lower capacity to adapt because of a lack of
  financial, institutional and technological
  capacity and access to knowledge
• Impacts disproportionately upon the poorest
  countries and the poorest people, exacerbating
  inequities in health status and access to
  adequate food, clean water and other resources.

6
Adaptation

• Has the potential to reduce adverse effects of
  climate change and can produce ancillary
  benefits, but cannot prevent all damages.
• Numerous adaptation options have been identified
  that can reduce adverse and enhance beneficial
  impacts of climate change.
• Greater and more rapid climate change would pose
  greater challenges for adaptation.
• Lower levels of future GHG concentrations will
  make the adaptation challenge easier.

7
Stabilization of atmospheric CO2 will require
significant emissions reductions
Source IPCC
8
Energy Sector CO2 Emissions in 2000
Source IEA
9
Industrialized countries have emitted the most
anthropogenic CO2(Area proportional to
historical CO2 emissions from fossil fuel
combustion, 1900-1999)
Source WRI
10
In the future, the share of global GHG emissions
from NA1 parties will increase
2035 total emission estimate 11.71 billion tons
of carbon
1995 total emissions 6.46 billion tons of carbon
Source OSTP
11
Contributions of GHGs to Global Warming The
Last 100 Years
Contributions of GHGs to Global Warming The
1980s
Source CC Train, 1999
12
Attributes of Key GHGs
Other GHGs include industrial gases (e.g.) SF6,
other HFCs, and indirect gases (water vapor, Nox,
etc.)
13
Agricultural Sector Contributes 20 of
global anthropogenic GHG emissions
50 of global methane emissions from enteric
fermentation and rice paddies
70 of global N20 emissions from artificial
fertilizers
5 of global CO2 emissions from fossil fuel
consumption and biomass burning
14
Solid Waste and Waste Water Disposal
1990 Emissions 50-80 Mt CH4 Methane emissions
are due to anaerobic digestion of organic
material in landfills and sewage effluent.
15
Forest Sector Total CO2 Emissions from
Deforestation and Land-Use Changes 0.5-2.5 GtC
16
Module 1b

• Definition and Scope of Mitigation Assessment

17
Definitions

• Mitigation is defined as any anthropogenic
  interventions that can either reduce the sources
  of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (abatement) or
  enhance their sinks (sequestration).
• In the context of the UNFCCC, a mitigation
  assessment is a national-level analysis of the
  various technologies and practices that have the
  capacity to mitigate climate change.

18
Time-Frame

• Need to examine long-run opportunities for
  reducing carbon sources or enhancing sinks,
  bearing in mind the life-times of various
  appliances and systems.
• Rate of technological change is closely related
  to the lifetime of capital stock.

Coal power 45 yrs
Motor vehicles 12 20 years
19
Scope

• Includes energy demand and supply, forestry,
  agriculture, rangelands and waste management.
• Includes analysis of the impact of options on the
  macro-economy.
• Considers policies and programs that can
  encourage adoption of mitigation technologies and
  practices

20
Module 1c

• The contributions of Working Group 3 (WG3) on
  mitigation in the IPCC Third Assessment Report
  (TAR)

21
Background on WG 3 Mitigation

• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
  (IPCC) has three working groups
• WG I to assess the Science of climate change
• WG II to assess Impacts, adaptation and
  vulnerability
• WG III to assess Mitigation of climate change

• WGIII was charged by the IPCC Plenary for the
  Panels Third Assessment Report (TAR) to assess
  the scientific, technical, environmental,
  economic, and social aspects of the mitigation of
  climate change.

22
Major Topics Covered in WGIII Report on Mitigation

• Greenhouse Gas Emissions Scenarios
• Technological and Economic Potential of
  Mitigation Options
• Technological and Economic Potential of Sinks
• Barriers, Opportunities, and Market Potential
• Policies, Measures, and Instruments
• Costing Methodologies
• Global, Regional and National Costs and Ancillary
  Benefits
• Sectoral Costs and Ancillary Benefits of
  Mitigation
• Decision Analytic Frameworks
• Gaps in Knowledge

23
Chapter 2 Greenhouse Gas Mitigation Scenarios
and Implications

• This chapter reviews three scenario literatures
  general mitigation scenarios produced since the
  SAR, narrative-based scenarios found in the
  general futures literature, and mitigation
  scenarios based on the new SRES scenarios.
• In addition, it provides recommendations for
  future research, including the need for more
  explicit analysis of policy instruments leading
  to mitigation, inclusion of other GHGs than CO2,
  and capacity building for scenario analyses in
  developing countries.

24
Chapter 2 GHG Emissions Scenarios

• Scenarios represent plausible future worlds with
  particular economic, social and environmental
  characteristics
• Mitigation scenarios are usually defined as a
  description and a quantified projection of how
  GHG emissions can be reduced with respect to some
  baseline scenario.
• Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES)
  Four scenario families. Each family has a
  unifying theme in the form of a storyline or
  narrative that describes future demographic,
  social, economic, technological, and policy
  trends

25
Qualitative Directions for SRES Scenarios
26
Chapter 3 Technological and Economic Potential
GHG Emissions Reductions

• Describes technologies and practices to reduce
  greenhouse gas emissions in the end-use sectors
  of the economy as well as through changes in
  energy supply.
• Concludes that while there is significant
  potential for GHG emissions reductions in every
  sector considered, appropriate policies is
  required to realize the potential.

27
Chapter 4 Options to Enhance, Maintain, and
Manage Carbon Sinks

• Assesses biological and geo-engineering
  mitigation measures to capture carbon in
  terrestrial ecosystems, focusing on the physical
  mitigation potential, ecological and
  environmental constraints, economics, and social
  considerations.
• Concludes that by 2010 mitigation in LULUCF
  activities can lead to significant mitigation of
  CO2 emissions while complementing other land
  management objectives. Geo-engineering is not
  ready for near-term application.

28
Chapter 5 Barriers, Opportunities, and Market
Potential of Technologies and Practices

• Discusses the barriers that slow the transfer and
  penetration of technologies and practices that
  have the potential to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG)
  emissions.
• Also discusses theories and models to understand
  technological and social innovation and its
  drivers and implications.
• Topic addressed in Module 4.

29
Chapter 6 Policies, Measures, and Instruments

• Examines the major types of policies and measures
  that can be used to mitigate net GHG
  concentrations in the atmosphere.
• In addition to economic dimensions, political,
  economic, legal, and institutional elements are
  considered insofar as they are relevant to the
  discussion of policies and measures.

30
Chapter 7 Costing Methodologies

• Addresses methodological issues that arise in the
  estimation of the monetary costs of climate
  change.
• The focus is on the correct assessment of the
  costs of mitigation measures to reduce the
  emissions of GHGs.
• Includes discussion of technologically rich
  bottom-up models and more aggregate top-down
  models, which link the energy sector to the rest
  of the economy.
• Concludes with recommendations for further
  research while contending that much progress has
  been made since the SAR.

31
Chapter 8 Global, Regional, and National Costs
and Ancillary Benefits of Mitigation

• Examines the literature on the costs of
  greenhouse gas mitigation policies at the
  national, regional, and global levels.
• Net welfare gains or losses are reported,
  including (when available) the ancillary benefits
  of mitigation policies.
• These studies employ the full range of analytical
  tools described in Chapter 7.
• Concludes that the cost estimates of stabilizing
  atmospheric CO2 concentrations depend upon the
  concentration stabilization target, the emissions
  pathway to stabilization and the baseline
  scenario assumed.

32
Chapter 9 Sector Costs and Ancillary Benefits
of Mitigation

• Reviews the research on the cost implications and
  ancillary benefits of mitigation strategies
  across sectors, including
• Top-down studies that capture general effects on
  the economy and tend to consider price-driven
  policies such as carbon taxes rather than
  technology policies.
• Bottom-up studies that examine technology-driven
  options and financial cost-benefit analyses of
  individual mitigation measures.

33
Chapter 10 Decision-making Frameworks

• Provides a critical appraisal of policy-oriented
  analyses and summarizes the emerging insights in
  a form that allows policymakers to make informed
  judgments.
• Considers the special features of climate change
  in the context of how they affect decision-making
  in different frameworks.
• Suggests that mitigation, adaptation, and
  learning activities should be carefully crafted
  over time but that mitigation action at any level
  should start in the near term.

34
Main WGIII ConclusionsNature of the Mitigation
Challenge

• Climate change is a problem with unique
  characteristics
• Global, long-term, involves complex interactions
  between climatic, environmental, economic,
  political, institutional, social, and
  technological processes
• Alternative development paths can result in very
  different GHG emissions (e.g., SRES)
• Climate change mitigation will both be affected
  by, and have impacts on, broader socio-economic
  policies and trends
• Differences in distribution of resources are key
  considerations (i.e., equity concerns)
• Lower emissions scenarios require different
  patterns of energy resource development

35
Module 1d

• The UNFCCC Guidelines on Mitigation Assessment

36
The United Nations Framework Convention on
Climate Change (UNFCCC)

• Came into force in 1994 signed by over 150
  countries.
• Overall framework for intergovernmental efforts
  to tackle climate change. 
• Recognizes that climate is affected by
  anthropogenic emissions of GHGs.
• Seeks stabilization of GHG concentrationsat a
  level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic
  interference with the climate system (Article 2)
• Parties
• expected to take precautionary measures to
  anticipate, prevent or minimize the causes of
  climate change and mitigate its adverse effects
  (Article 3).
• have common but differentiated responsibilities
  based on their national circumstances.
• gather and share information on GHG emissions,
  national policies and best practices.
• launch national strategies for addressing
  greenhouse emissions and adapting to expected
  impacts, including the provision of financial and
  technological support to developing countries. 
• cooperate in preparing for adaptation to the
  impacts of climate change.
• The Conference of Parties (COP) is the highest
  decision-making authority of the Convention.

37
UNFCCC Parties

• Annex I members of OECD in 1992 economies in
  transition (EIT).
• Annex II OECD members of Annex I. Required to
  provide financial resources to enable developing
  countries to undertake emissions reduction
  activities and to help them adapt to adverse
  effects of climate change. Must also "take all
  practicable steps" to promote development
  transfer of environmentally friendly technologies
  to EITs and developing countries.
• Non-Annex I (NA1) are mostly developing
  countries.
• Certain countries recognized as being especially
  vulnerable to climate change, including countries
  with low-lying coastal areas and those prone to
  desertification and drought. Others are more
  vulnerable to the potential economic impacts of
  climate change responses (e.g. fossil fuel
  exporting nations).
• The 48 least developed countries (LDCs), are
  given special consideration under the Convention
  on account of their limited capacity to respond
  to climate change and adapt to its adverse
  effects.

38
Status of National Communications

• National communications have become an important
  tool for bringing climate change concerns to the
  attention of policy makers at the national level.
• In 2002, COP8 in India adopted a set of new and
  improved guidelines for national communications
  (17/CP.8).
• By July 2005, initial national communications had
  been presented to the COP by 125 NA1 parties,
  and second national communications had been
  presented by 3 NA1 parties.
• In the next phase of the Convention in which the
  focus is increasingly on implementation, national
  communications will become an important strategic
  tool to help countries align their interests and
  priorities to the overall goals of the Convention.

39
Reporting Commitments

• Article 4, p.1, and Article 12, p.1, of the
  convention provide for each Party to report to
  the COP
• information on its emissions by sources and
  removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not
  controlled by the Montreal Protocol (greenhouse
  gas inventories)
• national or, where appropriate, regional
  programmes containing measures to mitigate, and
  to facilitate adequate adaptation to climate
  change (general description of steps taken or
  envisaged by the Party to implement the
  Convention)
• any other information that the Party considers
  relevant to the achievement of the objective of
  the Convention.

40
Guidelines for National Communications
Preparation for non-Annex I Parties

• Adopted in 2002, at COP8. Principal objectives
• to assist NA1 Parties in meeting their reporting
  requirements
• to encourage the presentation of information in a
  consistent, transparent, comparable and flexible
  manner
• to facilitate the presentation of information on
  support required for the preparation of national
  communications
• to serve as policy guidance to the operating
  entity of the financial mechanism of the
  Convention, for the timely provision of financial
  support needed by NA1 Parties in order to fulfill
  their reporting requirement
• to ensure that the COP has sufficient information
  to carry out its responsibility for assessing the
  implementation of the Convention by Parties.

41
Information to be Includedin NA1 Party National
Communications

• National inventory of anthropogenic emissions by
  sources and removal by sinks of all greenhouse
  gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol
• A general description of steps taken or envisaged
  by the Party to implement the Convention
• Any other information that the Party considers
  relevant to the achievement of the objective of
  the Convention and suitable for inclusion in its
  communication, including, if feasible, materials
  relevant for calculations of global emission
  trends.

42
National Circumstances for NA1 Parties

• NA1 parties should provide a description of
  national and regional development priorities,
  objectives and circumstances, on the basis of
  which they will address climate change and its
  adverse impacts.
• This may include information on geography,
  climate and economy which may affect their
  ability to deal with mitigating and adapting to
  climate change, as well as information regarding
  specific needs and concerns arising from the
  adverse effects of climate change and/or the
  impact of the implementation of response
  measures.
• NA1 parties are encouraged to provide a summary
  of relevant information regarding their national
  circumstances, as appropriate, in tabular form.
• NA1 parties may provide a description of existing
  institutional arrangements relevant to the
  preparation of their national communications on a
  continuous basis.

43
Mitigation Guidelines (1)

• Each NA1 Party shall communicate to the COP a
  general description of steps taken or envisaged
  by the Party to implement the Convention, taking
  into account its common but differentiated
  responsibilities and its specific national and
  regional development priorities, objectives and
  circumstances. (25)
• NA1 Parties may provide information on programmes
  containing measures to mitigate climate change by
  addressing anthropogenic emission by sources and
  removals by sinks of all GHGs not controlled by
  the Montreal Protocol, and measures to facilitate
  adequate adaptation to climate change, following
  the provisions in these guidelines. (26)

44
Mitigation Guidelines (2)

• The extent to which developing country Parties
  will effectively implement their commitment to
  communicate this information will depend on the
  effective implementation by developed country
  Parties of their commitments under the Convention
  relating to financial resources and transfer of
  technology. (27)
• Each Party shall provide to the COP information
  on steps taken or envisaged for formulating,
  implementing, publishing and regularly updating
  national and, where appropriate, regional
  programmes containing measures to mitigate
  climate change and any other information they
  consider to be relevant. (37)

45
Methodological Approaches for Mitigation

• Based on national circumstances, NA1 Parties are
  encouraged to use whatever methods are available
  and appropriate in order to formulate and
  prioritize programmes containing measures to
  mitigate climate change this should be done
  within the framework of sustainable development
  objectives, which should include social, economic
  and environmental factors. (38)
• In their assessment of these programmes on
  various sectors of the economy, NA1 Parties may
  use the appropriate technical resources. (39)
• Such as Technologies, Policies and Measures for
  Mitigating Climate Change (IPCC Technical Paper
  I) GHG Mitigation Assessment A Guidebook by the
  US Country Studies Program Climate Change 2001
  Mitigation (Contribution of Working Group III to
  the Third Assessment Report of the IPCC).

46
Reporting

• Based on national circumstances, NA1 Parties are
  encouraged to provide, to the extent their
  capacities allow, information on programmes and
  measures implemented or planned which contribute
  to mitigating climate change by addressing
  anthropogenic emissions by sources and removals
  by sinks of all GHGs not controlled by the
  Montreal Protocol, including, as appropriate,
  relevant information by key sectors on
  methodologies, scenarios, results, measures and
  institutional arrangements.

47
Module 1e

• Potential Benefits of Mitigation Activities

48
The Benefits of GHG Mitigation

• Primary GHG emissions abatement reducing global
  climate change.
• Co-benefits non-climate benefits explicitly
  incorporated into the creation of GHG mitigation
  policies.
• Ancillary benefits side-effects that arise
  subsequent to any proposed mitigation policy
• E.g. reductions in local and regional air
  pollution, associated with the reduction of
  fossil fuels, and indirect effects on issues such
  as transportation, agriculture, land use
  practices, biodiversity preservation, employment,
  income and fuel security.

49
Mitigation Could Provide Local Benefits

• Local environmental protection.
• Poverty alleviation
• Reduce fossil fuel consumption
• Improve technological base.
• Increase in technological efficiency and
  effectiveness,
• Improvements in the security and availability of
  power supply.
• Reduction in road congestion with a shift from
  private to public transport.
• Increase in employment resulting from mitigation
  projects.
• Strengthening of institutional, systemic and
  human capacity.

50
Potential Levels and Scope

• Global, regional and country level.
• Short, medium and long term.
• Scope of the approach general (aggregated)
  benefit and sector benefit
• Identification of key benefit by sectors energy
  and non energy.

51
Some Key Challenges

• Identification, estimation and valuation of
  mitigation benefits.
• Relation between mitigation and sustainable
  development

52
Different Tools, Policies, Measures and
Instruments

• Global Kyoto Protocol.
• Country level emissions, carbon, or energy
  taxes, subsidies, deposit-refund systems,
  voluntary agreements, permits (tradable and
  non-tradable), technology and performance
  standards, product bans, direct government
  spending, including RD investment.
• Regional level tradable quotas, joint
  implementation, clean development mechanism,
  harmonized emissions, carbon or energy taxes,
  quotas, international technology and product
  standards, voluntary agreements, and direct
  international transfers of financial resources
  and technology.

53
Module 1f

• Interactions between mitigation and development

54
Development will be Undermined by Climate Change

• The Challenge
• Poverty 1.3 billion people live on less than 1
  per day and 3 billion people on less than 2 per
  day. Top 20 income group uses 86 of resources,
  while bottom 20 uses under 1.3
• Food 800 million people malnourished today --
  food production needs to double in the next 35
  years
• Water 1.3 billion people without clean water 2
  billion without sanitation
• Energy 2 billion people without electricity
• Environment 1.4 billion people exposed to
  dangerous levels of outdoor pollution and even
  larger number exposed to dangerous levels of
  indoor air pollution and vector-borne diseases
• Shelter many live in areas susceptible to civil
  strife, environmental degradation, and natural
  disasters

55
Developing Countries are the Most Vulnerable to
Climate Change

• Impacts disproportionately on the poorest
  countries and people, who have contributed least
  to GHG emissions exacerbates inequities in
  health status and access to adequate food, clean
  water and other resources.
• Net effects negative in most developing
  countries, but mixed for developed countries for
  warming up to a few ºC.
• A warming of greater than a few ºC is likely to
  result in net effects becoming negative for most
  countries

56
An integrated climate change-sustainable
development strategy is essential
Emerging Viewpoint
Source Adapted from Munasinghe, 2005
57
Sustainable Development Domain
Climate Domain
Climate Change Stresses
Human and Natural Systems
Climate System
Adaptation
Adaptive Capacity
Feedbacks
Feedbacks
Non-climate Stresses
Econ.
Soc.
Envir.
Radiative Forcing
Feedbacks
Feedbacks
Different Socio-economic Development Paths
Atmospheric GHG Emission and Concentration
Scenarios
Feedbacks
Mitigative Capacity
Mitigation
Human Actions Causing GHG Emissions
Source Munasinghe, 2005
58
CO2 and Development
20000
10000
5000
Indonesia
Source WBCSD 2005
OECD
Emissions by sector, kg CO2 per capita per year
(2001)
Non-OECD
59
Goals of Energy Development
Energy sector development focuses on enhancing

• access to clean energy services
• 1.6 billion people do not consume any
  electricity, and very little kerosene or LPG
• Household energy consumption is 212 kgoe/cap
  (compared to 651 kgoe/cap in industrialized
  countries) about 25 comes from biomass used
  traditionally
• quality of the local environment
• Indoor air pollution kills 2 million women and
  children prematurely
• Only 15 of cities in developing countries have
  acceptable urban air quality

60
Energy and Poverty

• The poor typically spend a greater fraction of
  their income on indispensable energy services,
  such as cooking, than do the rich.
• At the same time, they frequently forgo (or
  compromise severely on) services like lighting
  and space heating that require energy carriers
  (e.g., electricity) and devices (e.g.,
  fluorescent lights) to which they either dont
  have access, or whose first costs tend to be
  unaffordable.

61
Goals of Energy Development
Energy sector development focuses on enhancing

• economic productivity
• Non-household energy intensity in developing
  countries is 0.36 kgoe/-GDP (compared to 0.19
  kgoe/-GDP in industrialized countries)
• Competitiveness and opportunity costs of supply
  expansion drive energy efficiency initiatives
• security of energy supply
• Energy imports are a large fraction of exports
• Volatility in international prices leads to
  macroeconomic instability

62
Module 1g

• Integrating Mitigation and Adaptation

63
Integrating Mitigation and Adaptation

• UNFCCC identifies two separate options for
  addressing climate change mitigation and
  adaptation.
• There are increasing calls to better integrate
  these two fields.
• Because of long lag times in the climate system,
  no mitigation efforts will be able to prevent
  climate change.
• Conversely, reliance on adaptation alone would
  lead to a large magnitude of climate change, to
  which it would be very expensive to adapt.

64
Synergies

• Synergies exist when measures that control GHG
  concentrations also reduce adverse climate
  impacts.
• E.g. urban tree planting provides both
  sequestration and reduces heat stress.
• Significant downside of placing too much focus on
  seeking synergies
• Implementation of synergistic measures can
  involve great institutional complexity
• Opportunities for synergistic measures are
  probably very limited compared to the overall
  challenges of each field.
• Many synergistic measures may not be a wise
  investment in terms of mitigation and adaptation
  benefits.
• Risks that activities will be labeled as both
  mitigation and adaptation activities to make them
  more attractive for funding thereby diminishing
  overall effectiveness of how climate funds are
  spent.

65
Mixing Mitigation and Adaptation

• Seeking an optimal mix of activities may be a
  poor approach given uncertainties about climate
  change and the widely differing interests, values
  and preferences of stakeholders.
• Seeking robustness is probably a better approach
  to decision making.
• Mainstreaming is an emerging approach that
  seeks to integrate policies and measures that
  address climate change into ongoing sectoral and
  development planning and decision making so as
  ensure long-term sustainability and reduce
  vulnerability to both current and future climate.
• Currently, institutions are not well adapted to
  support this type of integrated approach.

66
Possible Topics for Discussion

• What is the proper role of mitigation in the
  development plans of the least developed
  countries?
• What are the differences between pursuing
  mitigation and adaptation policies?
• What is the role of the U.N. National
  Communications Support Programme (NCSP)?