Short Term

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• ?

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A level PSYCHOLOGY

• Welcome to Psychology
• The study of the mind human behaviour

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Week 1introduction to ?
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lets start with some illusions
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What do you see?
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One or two faces?
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An extra piece or a piece missing?
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Donkey or seal?
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Flickering dots
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Young or old man?
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How many horses?
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Eskimo or red Indian?
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A knight in the trees
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Stare at the dot rock!
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Which line is the longest?
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Never ending staircase
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Sax face
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Copy this shape
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A bridge-ship?
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What do you see?
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Imaginary grey dots
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The man is a liar!
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Copy this shape
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Two faces or a vase?
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A young or old woman?
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Stroop effect2 trials (conditions)
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A boring Penguin
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A Techno penguin
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Personality. Pick a shape which you think
describes you best?

• Triangle
• Square
• Circle
• Explosion

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Personality. What does it mean?

• Triangle. Easy going, like other peoples
  company optimistic about life.
• Square. Level headed, intelligent serious, a
  very giving likeable person
• Circle. A quiet gentle person, keeps themselves
  to themselves is close to family friends

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Oh dear!

• Explosion.
• An unhealthy obsession with food, Alcohol
  Sex!!!!

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Penguins dream of getting to mars
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and have made it cause they have tried really
hard to get there
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A Penguin in a box
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Why study human behaviour?....
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Because..

• Some things about us are really interesting

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Really Interesting
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.. some things not so interesting..
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Some things we have found out have been important
in helping us understand why we do the things we
do
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FOR EXAMPLE

• Why do we like some people and not others?
• How can we improve our memory?
• What are the consequences of not having a good
  childhood?
• How do we cope with stress?
• What is the difference between right wrong?

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More Questions

• Why do we obey others?
• What makes us aggressive?
• Why cant children see things from another
  persons perspective?
• Why do we stereotype people?
• Why do we call people weird?

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What exactly is a Freak why do we call people
names like this?

• Think of other names we call people besides freak
  write them down in a spider graph starting with
  the word freak in the middle.

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What is a freak?
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What is psychology?

• Psychology attempts to study our mind behaviour
  in order to gain a better understanding towards
  why we do the things we do.
• There are two ways in which psychology works
• We research behaviour by carrying out studies
  such as experiments, observations, questionnaires
  surveys.
• We apply what we find to real life settings in
  order to order to help people.

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Help who exactly?

• Forensic psychologists study criminal behaviour
  work in prisons for the police. They can
  suggest ways to catch criminals how to help
  them become better people once they are caught.
• Child psychologists work with children and help
  them develop can help children learn better
  become more sociable .

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psychologists

• Clinical psychologists work in hospitals
  clinics help people who have become mentally
  ill as a result of brain damage or trauma look
  for ways to help them recover.
• Organisational psychologists help businesses
  become more efficient by suggesting ways to
  improve as result, their employees become more
  productive at work

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Other Psychologists

• Sport psychologists
• Help sportspeople improve their performance
• Educational psychologists
• Help children with learning difficulties
• Teacher/lecturer
• Help students get A grades

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How do we explain behaviour?
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Interactive pavlov

• http//www.psypress.co.uk/pip/resources/slp/topic.
  asp?chapterch08topicch08-sc-01

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Explaining behaviour

• Behavioural
• Cognitive
• Psychodynamics
• Biological

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Behavioural approach

• Attempts to explain behaviour by suggesting that
  we learn to behave by
• Classical conditioning. Learning by association..
  
• Operant conditioning. Learning by direct
  reinforcement.
• Social learning theory. Learning by observing and
  imitating others especially if they are being
  rewarded in some way for their behaviour also
  if we see them as role models.

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Cognitive approach

• Attempts to explain behaviour by the way we think
  about our behaviour. It suggests that the brain
  is an information processing system which
  involves making sense of the world around us.
  Firstly, sensation, then perception, attention,
  memory forgetting, language, learning and so
  on.

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Psychodynamics

• Attempts to explain behaviour by suggesting that
  we behave the way we do due to unconscious,
  internal forces that motivate us derived from our
  childhood experiences.
• Psycho-sexual stages of development (OAPLP).
• Personality theory (id, ego, superoego).

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Biological approach

• Attempts to explain behaviour by our physical
  make up. This includes genetics, brain
  biochemistry, brain structure and hormonal
  responses.

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• Week 2 (5)

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Cognitive Psychology

• Memory
• Differences between STM LTM
• In terms of capacity, duration coding

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HUMAN MEMORY

• What are your earliest memories?
• Why do we remember some things more than others?

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What is memory?

• Memory is the process of encoding, storing
  retrieving information.

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Short Term Long Term Memory

• Memory Is the process by which we hold
  information about events in the past Short
  Long term.
• It is the process of encoding, storing and
  retrieving information.
• Short term memory (STM) Is memory for immediate
  events, they last a very short time disappear
  unless they are Rehearsed STM has a limited
  duration capacity.
• Long term memory (LTM) Is our store for memory
  of events in the past, it lasts from about 30
  seconds to 100 years potentially unlimited
  duration capacity.

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An example of Rehearsal..
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Repetitive behaviour
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The nature structure of memory

• Duration Is how long memory lasts for.
• STM Key study Peterson Peterson trigram recall
• LTM key study Bahrick et al. recall of yearbook
  photos
• Factors that influence the duration of STM
  include rehearsal, brain damage and time.

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Capacity

• Is the Amount that can be held in memory.
• STM key study Miller serial digit span technique
• Factors that influence the capacity of STM
  include chunking age.

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Chunking effectnumbers

• Do you recognise these digits as a pattern?
• 08 9811 8118 106 6193 519 4501 274

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Chunking effectletters

• FBIC IAC IDAS BOS ASAS BB CIT VSM SM SN

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Encoding

• Is the way that information is changed when
  stored in memory.
• STM LTM key study Baddeley acoustic semantic
  coding in STM LTM.
• The less alike words sound, whether or not their
  meanings are similar, the more likely you are to
  remember them.
• Factors that influence encoding include the
  nature of the stimulus (concrete or abstract)
  age.

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Exercise - Duration

• Peterson Peterson the Brown-Peterson technique

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Exercise - Capacity

• Millers study

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Exercise -Encoding

• Baddeley
• Acoustic semantic similar words

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Week 3 (5)
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Models of memory
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Multi store model
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Evidence in support of the multi- store model

• Studies of capacity, duration encoding in both
  STM LTM
• Glanzer Cunitz Primacy Recency effect
• Studies of brain-damaged patients KF, HM

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Exercise the P/R effect

• Glanzer Cunitz the primacy/recency effect.

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Brain damage memory loss

• Research studies on KF HM.

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Criticisms of the multi store model

• Over simplified
• It does not reflect real life as we do not
  rehearse every thing to LTM
• Other criticisms

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Working Memory

• Consists of a Central executive, a phonological
  loop a visuo-spatial sketch pad.
• Each component works on different kinds of
  perceptual information.
• The Central Executive. The Control centre (is
  like attention).
• Phonological loop The Inner ear.
• Articulatory loop The Inner voice.
• Visuo-spatial sketch pad The inner eye.

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Working memory
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WM 2
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Evidence in support of the working memory model

• The dual task technique (it is easier to do two
  tasks that use a different processing system
  (verbal and visual) than two tasks that use the
  same system similar).APFCC
• The word-length effect (people cope better with
  short words in WM than long words).APFCC
• Studies on the sketch pad (picturing memories)
  and brain-damaged patients (KF could remember
  visual but not verbal information in STM, which
  means there must be at least two systems.
• However, not much is known about the capacity or
  functioning of the central executive. It is not
  clear what happens to other kinds of memory such
  as taste or smell.

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Exercise - evidence

• Dual task technique
• Word length effect

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Criticisms of WM

• Not much known about the role of the central
  executive

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Week 4 (5)
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Theories of forgetting

• Definition
• The inability to recall or recognise information
  which was previously learned or placed in
  memory.
• Forgetting may happen due to a memory not being
  available (it has disappeared) or not being
  accessible (cant recall it).

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STM explanations Decay displacement

• Decay means the memory has fades away over time.
  This is because it hasnt been rehearsed or just
  is not used. However, it does not explain why we
  can remember old memories or something just
  reappears in our minds. (Such as in a dream).
• Key study The Brown-Peterson technique.
• Recall of trigrams was worse after 18 secs than
  it was after 3 seconds. However, poorer recall
  could be due to interference (counting backwards)
  that was used to prevent rehearsal.
• STM explanations Decay displacement

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Displacement

• Displacement means old memories are replaced by
  newer ones (just like books on a shelf).
• Key Study the serial probe technique
• A participant is given a set of 16 digits. One
  digit (the probe) is repeated and the participant
  tries to recall the digit that follows it. Recall
  is much better if the probe is nearer to the end
  of the list than near the start.

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LTM explanations Interference theory Retrieval
failure

• Interference means similar memories interfere
  disrupt and confuse each other. The more similar
  the information is, the more likely interference
  will happen.
• Proactive interference is when old memories
  affect new ones (calling a new boyfriend by your
  old bfs name).
• Retroactive interference means new memories
  affect old memories (going to change gears in an
  automatic when you are used to driving a manual
  geared car).

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Retrieval failure

• Retrieval failure means we cannot access a memory
  even though we know it in our memory somewhere.
  It means we do not have the right cues in order
  to remember.
• Memories are remembered best
• When the cue is similar to what we are trying to
  remember.(cue dependent)
• When we recall the information in the same place
  as we originally memorised it.(context state)
• Key Study - Godden Baddeley deep sea divers
  study
• When we memorised something when we were happy
  and recall it when we are happy (mood state)

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Emotional factors in forgetting

• Flashbulb memories
• Definition
• Accurate and long-lasting memories formed at
  times of high emotion, such as significant public
  or personal events.
• e.g. 9/11, death of Princess Diana.
• It is as if a flash photograph was taken at the
  moment of the event and every detail indelibly
  printed in memory. Flashbulb memories enhance
  memory recall.
• One suggestion is that the hormones released at a
  time of high emotion may enhance memory.
• KEY STUDY - Flashbulb memory of Sept 11th, 2001

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09/11

• Investigated whether this event, which produced a
  strong emotional response, was recalled with
  accuracy over a long period of time or whether
  memory of this event was prone to errors.
• People were questioned immediately after the
  attacks and then a year later.
• Such as
• where they were? What they were doing? What time
  it was? Who they were with? How they felt? Etc.
• Nearly all Americans had a perfect fm of 9/11.
• Therefore, fms are more detailed, vivid and
  accurate than ordinary memories. fms appear to
  exist for particularly dramatic, surprising,
  shocking events. It would appear that personal
  relevance of the event is a vital factor of fms.

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Flashbulb memories

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• Brown Kulik. JFK study of fm
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  Moments before the assassination of JFK.
• In Brown Kuliks study 75 of black Americans
  reported fms for the death of Martin Luther King
  compared to only 33 of white Americans.
• The opposite was reported for the death of JFK.

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Repression

• Definition
• According to Freud, a form of ego defence where
  anxiety-provoking memories are kept out of
  conscious awareness as a means of coping. e.g.
  .negative childhood experiences.
• Repression Inhibits memory recall.
• Levinger and Clark.Emotionally charged words
  study

Hate War Death Punish Destruction Hurt Blood Murde
r Kill
Day Space Light Flower Chip Sound Easy Road Tree
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Free association

• Procedure
• Participants were given a list of words and were
  asked to say what came into their mind when they
  saw each word. This is called word association.
  During the task GSRs were measured as an
  indicator of stress levels. Finally, participants
  were given the cue words again and asked to
  recall the associations they had just reported.
• People took longer to think of the associations
  to the negative words suggesting they had
  repressed them because they caused anxiety.
• GSRs were higher for the negative words.
• However, this theory is difficult to test for
  ethical and practical reasons.
• Some people seem to have repressed their
  memories of being abused and these memories can
  be accessed during psychotherapy or hypnotherapy.
• Some evidence shows that people are prone to
  suggestion and leading questions.

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Week 5 (5)
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Critical Issue Eye Witness Testimony (EWT)

• The study of EWT is concerned with how accurately
  people are able to remember events (especially
  crimes) which they had witnessed. The
  consequences of inaccurate EWT can be serious
  especially as jurors have been highly influenced
  by such evidence.
• We therefore, need to think of ways what causes
  unreliable evidence and what we can do to improve
  it. These include reconstructive memory, leading
  questions and the effects of fear and anxiety on
  recall.

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Reconstructive memory

• Reconstructive memory Bartlett stated that
  memory doesnt work like a camera as with fms.
  instead we are prone to reconstruct our memories
  based on our existing schemas (knowledge of the
  world) and that we fill in the gaps when we are
  unable to remember all the details.
• Bartletts studied reconstructive memory using
  the story the war of the ghosts. English
  participants read an unfamiliar American Indian
  folk story. When the story was repeated at later
  stages he found that it became shorter, and more
  understandable from an English point of view. It
  had been reconstructed/translated to fit the
  schemas that the English participants had about
  story telling.

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The war of the ghosts
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Schemas

• Schemas are organised packages of information
  about objects, events etc, which are built up by
  experience and stored in LTM. They help us to
  understand our world and new experiences.
• When schemas relate to social situations they
  are called scripts.
• These scripts consist of stereotypical behaviours
  and are typical for a given occasion (going to a
  restaurant).

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Bransford

• Bransford Johnson showed that schemas are
  important in helping us deal with information.
  They showed participants statements of an event
  (flying a kite).
• People were able to recall more of the
  statements later when they knew the statements
  were about how to fly a kite.
• Schemas can be important when considering EWT as
  they can affect memory in a number of ways
• We tend to ignore information we do not
  understand or fit with our existing schemas.
• We remember the basics of some events but not
  necessarily all the details.
• We use our schemas to fill in the gaps of what
  might have happened (we guess).
• Our memories may well be stereotyped (Allport
  Postman).
• Recent studies similar to Bartletts have found
  high levels of accuracy and not much filling in
  the gaps.
• However, schemas have also shown to be very
  accurate for many events.

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schemas

• In a now-famous experiment by Bransford and
  Johnson, subjects read an ambigious text passage
  by itself or one accompanied by either of two
  illustrations.  Although both contained identical
  graphic elements, only the one with elements
  organized in a contextually sensible way (bottom
  left image) facilitated better recall of the
  story.

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The balloon scenario
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Balloon story

• If the balloons popped the sound wouldn't be able
  to carry since everything would be too far away
  from the correct floor. A closed window would
  also prevent the sound from carrying, since most
  buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the
  whole operation depends upon a steady flOw of
  electricity, a break in the middle of the wire
  would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow
  could shout, but the human voice is not loud
  enough to carry that far. An additional problem
  is that a string could break on the instrument.
  Then there could be no accompaniment to the
  message. It is clear that the best situation
  would involve less distance. Then there would be
  fewer potential problems. With face to face
  contact, the least number of things could go
  wrong

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Week 6 (5)
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Leading questions

• Loftuss Research The effects of
  language/leading questions on recall
• Loftus suggests that the language used to
  question witnesses can change what they actually
  remembered.
• The Car Accident study
• Participants were asked a different question
  after watching a film of the same car crash
• How fast were the cars going when they
• Hit
• Crashed
• Smashed
• Collided
• Each other?

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Car crash
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Loftuss findings

• It was found that the word used in the question
  affected the estimated speed. Participants
  estimated 40 mph for the smashed condition, but
  only 34 mph for the hit condition.
• One week later, participants were asked if they
  had seen any broken glass. Although there was no
  broken glass, 32 of the smashed condition
  said they had compared to only 14 of the hit
  condition.
• In another experiment, Loftus Zanni showed
  another film of a car crash. Some eyewitnesses
  were asked if they had seen the broken
  headlight and others if they had seen a broken
  headlight. 17 of the the broken headlight
  condition reported seeing it compared to only 7
  of the a broken headlight condition.
• However, people are not so easily misled if the
  information is ridiculously obvious.
• Loftus has been critisised as most of her work is
  lab based and artificial.

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Fear Anxiety

• Freud believed that people forget about some
  events because they make us too anxious. He
  stated that these events were so traumatic that
  they were forced into the unconscious (I just
  want to forget about what happened). Freud
  referred to this as Repression
• Loftus reported the weapons focus study in
  which an attempt was made to create an emotional
  situation that reflected real life.
• Participants saw a man coming out of a lab
  either carrying a pen in greasy hands or carrying
  a blood-covered knife.
• Later, they were asked to ID the man. Only 33 of
  those in the weapon condition could ID the man,
  whereas 49 of those in the pen condition
  correctly IDd the man.
• We can conclude that people has focused more on
  the weapon because it caused more anxiety and
  less attention was paid to the man.
• However, we have to question the ethics of the
  weapons focus study and more recently, research
  shows that victims of real crime make more
  accurate eyewitnesses than bystanders. This
  questions repression theory.

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The Cognitive Interview

• Improving EWT
• The (Enhanced) Cognitive Interview.is a
  technique used by the police to help obtain more
  accurate information
• from witnesses.
• During an interview a witness will be encouraged
  to
• Recreate the context of the event by imagining
  the setting (context dependent memory).
• Report every detail about the incident, no matter
  how trivial or vague.
• Recall the event in different orders.
• Recall the event from different perspectives such
  as imagining what another person might have seen.
• During police interviews, it is now standard
  procedure to
• Minimise distractions
• Try to reduce anxiety
• Do not hurry the witness
• Avoid interrupting asking leading questions

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Enhancing recall

• The cognitive interview has been a valuable tool
  in improving EWT. It is most effective if it is
  used ASAP after the event. The cognitive
  interview has shown to improve recall by up to
  35 more than the traditional police interview.
• Others factors that may improve recall include
• How long a person watched the event
• How close they were to the event
• Good visibility
• How familiar was the person to the witness
• How novel the situation was
• The amount of time between the event and recall

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Others factors that may improve recall

• How long a person watched the event
• How close they were to the event
• Good visibility
• How familiar was the person to the witness
• How novel the situation was
• Amount of time between the event and recall

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Week 7 (5)
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Summary of memory

• STM/LTM
• Models of memory
• Theories of forgetting
• EWT

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Term 2
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Week 8

• Developmental psychology

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Attachments in Development

• Development of attachments
• Attachment can be described as a strong
  emotional bond between two people, characterised
  by mutual affection and the need to be close.
• The key characteristics of attachment are seeking
  proximity, distress on separation, pleasure when
  reunited, and general orientation towards primary
  caregiver.
• Schaffer Emerson studied 60 babies in Glasgow.
  They were observed at home and asked their
  parents to report at what age they showed
  separation anxiety and stranger anxiety.
• Findings suggested three stages in the
  development of attachments
• Asocial, indiscriminate, specific attachments.
• Specific attachments were made to those who were
  socially interactive with, and were responsive to
  their babies needs.
• However, recent research shows that babies are
  able to form specific attachments at an earlier
  time than that suggested by Shaffer Emerson.
  Also, they used observations and mothers
  accounts of their babies behaviour, both methods
  are prone to bias.

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Individual Differences

• Ainsworth studied the quality (security) of
  childrens attachments using a procedure called
  the strange situation.
• In the SS, observers watch how children aged
  between 12-18 months behave during a series of
  structured episodes that take place in a lab
  setting
• The mother brings a child into the lab, a room
  where there are toys and comfortable furniture.
  They play with the toys together. Then a stranger
  enters the room.
• A series of episodes occurs in which the child is
  left alone or left with the stranger. The child
  is comforted by the stranger or by its mother
  if it gets upset.
• Three types of attachment were identified from
  the observations
• Secure 70 (explores the room happily when mum is
  present, gets upset when she leaves, but is happy
  again when she returns. The child prefers mum to
  stranger.
• Insecure resistant 15 (child does little
  exploring and is wary of stranger. Gets upset
  when mum leaves and is angry when she returns,
  seeking and rejecting contact).
• Insecure avoidant 15 (child is not bothered when
  mum leaves or when she returns. Child is
  indifferent to mum and stranger).
• Disorganised 1 (child is dazed and confused).

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The strange situation
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Ainsworths findings

• Strange situation cont.
• Secure children tested when they were older were
  still found to have secure attachments to their
  mum.
• Securely attached children were also more popular
  and had better social skills later on in life
  (Hazan Shaver, Early attachments type and later
  relationships).
• However, it may be that warm and caring mothers
  are more likely to have securely attached
  children.
• It may be that a childs innate personality is
  responsible for the type of attachment it
  develops.
• Some children responded differently depending on
  which parent was present.
• This suggests the quality of the childs
  relationship with its parent rather than its
  personality (mummys boy, daddys girl).

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Cross cultural variations

• The table below summarises the findings from
  research by Kroonenberg using the SS in different
  cultures and shows that secure attachment is the
  most common form of attachment all over the
  world.
• Country SecureAvoidantResistantstudiesGB752231Sw
  eden742241Germany573583Japan685272
• Explanations for these findings
• Research shows that Differences within cultures
  (between social classes) are greater than between
  cultures.
• There are different child-rearing styles that may
  account for the differences and the strange
  situation is a purely strange situation to be
  in.
• German children are taught from an early age to
  be more independent.
• Sweden invests in its children providing high
  quality day care and giving parenting advice.
• Japanese children are rarely left unattended by
  their mothers

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Week 9
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Explaining attachment

• Learning theory
• All behaviours are acquired through conditioning
• According to CC, Food (UCS) produces pleasure
  (UCR).
• Mum is associated with this pleasure and becomes
  a (CS).
• Thus, the baby has learned to associate its mum
  with the pleasure it feels when it is fed and so
  seeks to be close to her.
• According to OC, rewarded behaviours are
  repeated. After food, the hunger drive is reduced
  and this is rewarded. Therefore, when the baby is
  hungry again it repeats the behaviour (crying)
  that leads to drive reduction. Since the mum is
  the person who feeds the baby, the baby wants to
  be close to her and so becomes attached.
• However, research has shown that babies do not
  always become attached to the one who feeds them.
  Harlows monkey study showed that the supply of
  food was not enough for attachment to develop.
• This is a reductionist theory, in that it tries
  to explain a complex human behaviour in simple
  terms.
• Research support
• Schaffer Emerson Glasgow babies
• Harlow contact comfort in monkeys

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Harlows monkey study
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Bowlby (evolutionary theory)

• Bowlby suggested that there was a critical period
  (2.5 years) for the child to develop a normal
  relationship with its PCG, if this did not happen
  then it might lead to emotional damage.
• He also said that a child usually only has one
  strong attachment figure (monotropy).
• The attachment is adaptive in that it increases
  the childs chances of survival and reproduction
  owing to innate social releasers (crying) to gain
  attention and comfort from the PCG.
• Research support
• Lorenz imprinting
• Hazan Shaver -Early attachments and later
  behaviour (The Love quiz).
• Freuds psychodynamic approach suggests that
  children seek oral satisfaction (an innate
  drivethe pleasure principle). So, the one who
  feeds it becomes the love object

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Week 10
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Deprivation Privation

• Deprivation
• A child may be separated from one or both
  caregivers for a number of reasons, including
  divorce, death or hospitalisation.
• When the separation involves the loss of the
  primary attachment figure and consequent bond
  disruption, this is called deprivation.
• Bowlby the maternal deprivation hypothesis.
• Bowlby suggested that if a bond had not been
  formed or had been broken during the first 2 and
  a half years of a childs life ,and if no
  substitute mother was available, then this may
  have serious negative, developmental, emotional
  and intellectual effects later on in the Childs
  life These effects would be permanent and
  irreversible.
• Early research looked into the effects of
  separation and found three progressive stages
  that children showed in response to being
  separated
• Protest (intense period of lots of crying and
  distress.
• Despair (less crying and becomes apathetic and
  uninterested in its surroundings.
• Detachment (the child appears less distressed but
  is indifferent to mum when she reappears.
• Research shows that short term separation may
  have long term negative effects on some children

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KEY STUDY Bowlby 44 thieves

• Bowlby compared 44 petty thieves with 44 other
  badly behaved children.
• He labelled 32 of the thieves as affectionless
  psychopaths (antisocial behaviour unable to
  show emotion) because they lacked any remorse or
  guilt for their actions.
• 86 of the affectionless psychopaths had
  experienced early and prolonged separation from
  their PCGs compared to very few of the other
  children he studied.
• One of the main criticisms of Bowlbys study is
  that the data might have been unreliable
  (retrospective study).
• We also cannot say that separation leads people
  to steal.
• It might have been that a poor home environment
  was related to behavioural and emotional
  problems.

128
Privation

• Privation is the lack of an attachment. The
  effects of privation are more long lasting are
  severe than the effects of deprivation or
  separation.
• Key Studies
• Curtiss - Genie
• Koluchova - Czech Twins
• Freud Dann -Concentration camp children
• These case studies provide insights into
  exceptional cases that could not have been
  studied in any other way. The contents of case
  studies are selective so we cannot make
  generalisations from a single case study.

129
The effects of institutionalisation

• Hodges Tizard studied the effects of privation
  from studies of care homes.
• 65 children had been placed in care before the
  age of 4 months.
• By the age of 4 years, 24 children had been
  adopted, 15 went back to their families, and 26
  stayed in the care home.
• The children were assessed at 4, 8 and 16 years
  of age.
• Findings conclusions
• Adopted children formed the closest attachments
  and those who went back to their families had
  less good relationships with their natural
  parents.
• These children were attention seekers and were
  less socially skilled than a control group.
• However, some of the children dropped out of the
  study before it finished.
• Their might have been individual differences in
  the families and how they looked after their
  children.

130
Week 11
131
Critical issue Day Care

• Day care is a form of temporary care usually
  outside the home and not by family members.
• Effects of day care
• Negative
• Separation may lead to emotional deprivation
• The quality of care may not be as good as that at
  home.
• Positive
• It can be a stimulating environment
• There may be a high quality of care
• Mums with children at home all the time may
  become depressed
• (Provides a good outlet).
• Individual differences
• Insecure children may not cope very well
  (shyness, frightened)

132
Improving day care

• Provide a clean and healthy environment where
  children can play both indoors and outdoors with
  plenty of room.
• Provide a safe and stimulating environment with a
  variety of activities including play, sleep and
  food.
• A good staff to child ratio. 13 for infants to
  16 for older toddlers.
• Provide well-qualified staff with a staff
  turnover.

133
Week 12
134
Effects of Social development

• Developing social skills for effective
  communication later on in life where a child
  learns to interact positively with others
• Negative effects
• Some children become aggressive if separated from
  their PCG for more than a certain amount of time
  as rated by their parents and teachers.
• Positive effects
• Children in better quality care are friendlier
  and interact better with others than those in
  lower quality care.
• Positive effects on socially disadvantaged
  children.
• Some research has found no effects on social
  development

135
Cognitive development

• Changes in a persons mental structures,
  abilities and processes that happen throughout a
  persons lifetime.
• Negative effects
• Lack of stimulation affects mental development,
  reduced exploration.
• Positive effects
• Andersons longitudinal study in Sweden showed
  that high quality care increases IQ levels and
  performance at school in children when tested
  later at 8-13 years compared to those who did not
  attend day care.
• Some research has found no effects on cognitive
  development

136
Week 13

• Summary of developmental psychology
• Attachments in development
• Deprivation privation
• Day care

137
Week 14

• Past papers examination practice

138
Term 3

• Week 15/16/17
• Revision for unit 1 exam

139
Week 18

• Stress
• Stress as a bodily response
• Sources of stress
• Stress management

140
STRESS

• Definition of stress
• A state of physiological arousal and
  psychological tension caused by something from
  the environment.
• The perceived demands of the environment are
  greater than a persons perceived ability to
  cope.
• Stress as a physiological response
• The endocrine system consists of glands that
  secrete hormones that are carried by the blood to
  other body organs.
• Perceived stressor
• Hypothalamus
• Stimulates Pituitary gland SAM
• (Releases ACTH)
• Adrenal medulla
• (Releases adrenaline and
  noradranaline)
• Stimulates Adrenal cortex
• (Releases cortisol)

141
The visual system
142
THE GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROME

• Selye proposed the GAS to help explain the short
  term effects of the bodys response to stressors
  and how too much prolonged stress can lead to
  illness.
• The three stages of the GAS
• Alarm Reaction Stress response systems are
  activated the pituitary gland produces ACTH and
  the adrenal medulla produces Adrenaline.
• Resistance The body is adapting to cope with
  the stressor but the organism is becoming
  susceptible to illness.
• Exhaustion If the body is put under prolonged
  stress then its ability to cope starts to fail
  and exhaustion sets in. May result in damaging
  the immune system and stress related illnesses
  become more likely.
• Evaluation of the GAS
• Seyles work was unethical because he subjected
  rats to nocuous agents. However, it did lead to
  the recognition that there was a link between
  stress and illness.
• As his work was based on animals it only focused
  on the physiological response of stress. However,
  Selye did later accept the importance of
  cognitive and emotional factors.
• It is difficult to generalise findings with
  animals to humans.
• There may be different physiological responses to
  different stressors as shown by individual
  differences.

143
STRESS AND PHYSICAL ILLNESS

• There is lots of evidence to support the
  relationship between stress and illness. If the
  energy activated during times of stress is not
  used up, then dangerous high levels of glucose
  and fatty acids stay in the blood and increase
  the risk of CHD by blocking the blood supply to
  the heart.
• Stress can affect the body either
• Directly
• Excessive levels of glucose and fatty acids in
  the blood increase the risk of cardiovascular
  disease.
• High blood pressure damages blood vessels and
  leads to clotting.
• Excessive levels of cortisol release are related
  to arthritis.
• Damage to the immune system by preventing the
  growth of T cells.
• Indirectly.
• Stress may lead people to behave in ways that
  increase their chances of becoming ill. E.g.
  smoking, drinking, poor eating habits, lack of
  exercise. Stress can also be responsible for
  people behaving in dangerous and unpredictable
  ways.

144
Key Research studies into the relationship
between stress and illness.

• Williams those who score high on the anger
  scale are 2??? more likely to have a heart attack
  than those who do not score highly.
• Krantz CHD reduced blood supply to the heart
  muscles.
• Kiecolt-Glaser - Found that Immune system
  suppression is related to exam stress.
• Holmes and Rahe - found that Life Changes are
  related to illness
• Marmot Stress at work the job-strain model
  (high demand-low control theory).
• Showed that civil servants on low grades (with
  little control) were more likely to develop heart
  attacks than those on higher grades).
• Brady - Showed that monkeys with control were
  more likely to develop ulcers when given control
  of a lever.
• Rodin Langer showed that elderly people living
  in a home were happier and lived longer if they
  had some control over certain aspects of their
  lives (allowed visitors, having hobbies).
• This suggests that personal control can reduce
  stress and improve health.

145
Week 19

• Sources of Stress

146
Sources of stress

• Life events stress
• Life changes Events in a persons life that
  force a significant change or adjustment. They
  can be seen as significant sources of stress.
• Key Study - Holmes Rahe
• Life events (mostly negative), cause people to
  change. This causes stress and makes them more
  susceptible to illness.
• Research looked at the relationship between life
  events measured by life change units (LCUs) and
  the onset of illness.
• They found positive correlations between high
  SRRS scores and the risk/onset of physical or
  mental illness.
• However, this might be unreliable data. Different
  types, severity and length of time of illnesses
  were reported.
• However, Is the SRRS a valid measure as it only
  focuses on acute stress rather than chronic
  stress.
• Delongis et al.
• Daily Hassles Uplifts scale of 53 items found
  stronger correlations between scores on their
  scale and health status than SRRS scores and
  health.
• Their scale measured ongoing stressors such as
  money worries, general health, work, sex, family,
  crime, losing things, exams.

147
Stress the workplace

• Workplace stressors involve some aspect of a
  persons job which produces a stress reaction in
  the body. These include environmental stressors
  such as Noise, Temperature and crowding.
• There are also many other factors in the
  workplace that acts as stressors
• Key study Marmot found that those in jobs of
  higher grades developed fewer cardiovascular
  problems that those in low grade positions.
• This could be explained by the fact that those
  with low position jobs are paid less, have less
  control, and have poorer social support networks.
• Other research has found that the following can
  also cause people a great deal of stress
• Role ambiguity (lack of job description)
• Poor relationships (with boss or colleagues)
• Job insecurity (part time work/peace
  work/temporary employment/contract)
• Shift work (leads to metabolism/body clock
  problems)
• Perceived inadequacy lack of recognition of
  achievement

148
Individual differences that modify the effects of
stressors

• Freidman Rosenmann
• Found that Personality type A people are more at
  risk of developing CHD.
• Cooper (Culture)
• Research suggests that those who live in
  collectivist cultures cope better with stressful
  situations.
• Taylor (Gender)
• during stressful situations, men show greater
  increases in blood pressure and stress hormones
  than women do.

149
Week 20

• Stress management

150
STRESS MANAGEMENT

• Stress management can be defined as different
  ways in which people try to cope with the
  negative effects of stress.
• We might use physical methods to change the way
  our body reacts to stress, or psychological
  methods to change the way we deal with a
  stressful situation.

151
Physical methods of reducing stress

• Drugs
• Benzodiazepines (Valium) help by producing lots
  of GABA.
• This chemical is the bodys natural form of
  anxiety relief.
• It also reduces serotonin activity which
  increases neurotransmitter activity. People who
  are anxious need high levels of GABA and low
  levels of serotonin to help make them less
  anxious.
• Beta-blockers are used to slow down the heart
  rate and reduce blood pressure levels that
  otherwise could lead to serious problems for a
  person under stress. These drugs are often used
  by sportspeople by reducing the arousal of the
  ANS which may hinder optimal performance.

152
Strengths weaknesses

• Drugs provide a short term and quick remedy for
  stress. They require little effort for the user
  and they are relatively cheap.
• Drugs can also lead to addiction, side effects
  and may only be treating the symptoms and not the
  problem.

153
Biofeedback

• is based on the principles of operant
  conditioning where a person is rewarded for
  reducing their stress levels.
• The person under stress is connected to a number
  of biological measuring devices (EEG, EMG), which
  gives them a reading of what is happening to
  their body.
• The person then learns to control any adverse
  feedback by using breathing techniques.
• The procedure involves a number of stages
• The person is connected to the measuring device.
• They are instructed to focus on reducing certain
  bodily functions.
• Successful behaviours are repeated because they
  are rewarding.
• The person learns to transfer their skills to
  everyday situations..

154
Psychological methods of reducing stress include

• SIT
• (Meichenbaum) teaches people skills to cope with
  stress and to achieve personal goals.
• This consists of three phases
• 1. Conceptualisation (Cognitive aspect)
• Think about the problem and how it could be dealt
  with
• 2. Skills training practice (behavioural aspect)
• Practicing to relax by using breathing exercises
  talking about the problem positive self-talk
  (telling yourself you can do it)
• 3. Real-life applications
• Role-play , then in the real world

155
Hardiness training

• Hardiness training (Kobasa) teaches people to
  become harder about aspects of their lives.
• The three Cs of hardiness
• How to make a hardier personality
• 1. Focus
• Being able to know when we are about to be, or
  become stressed
• 2. Reconstruction
• Thinking about how a past event was dealt with
  and how it could have been dealt with better
• 3. Compensation for improvement
• Rewarding ourselves for positive outcomes of a
  previous negative response to a stressor
• RET (Ellis) believes that stress is caused by
  irrational thinking that leads a person to think
  of situations as a threat and therefore,
  stressful.
• Aactual event appraisal (Ive failed my exam)
• Bbeliefs (because Im lazy)
• Cconsequences of B (I have to leave college)
• Add the therapy
• Ddispute the irrational beliefs
• Ethe Effect of D is to restructure a persons
  beliefs about their ability

156
The Role of Control

• The ability to anticipate when we are about to
  face a potentially stressful situation and be
  prepared for it. Control is real or imagined.
• We can take control over a situation by the
  following
• Using a social support network of family and
  friends (although men are less likely to do this
  as women).
• Using information about a situation that will
  give us a greater sense of control by putting
  things into perspective (not blowing things out
  of proportion, being rational).
• Using a belief system such as religion which may
  give a person a sense of security and stability
  in their lives.
• Changing a behaviour to help cope better with a
  situation (worrying about not passing exams by
  being more enthusiastic and motivated towards
  studying).

157
Bradys executive monkey
158
Locus of control

• Locus of control describes the focus of peoples
  sense of control in their lives.
• People who believe they have control over their
  successes and failures are described as having an
  internal locus of control.
• Those of us who believe that our lives are
  determined by outside influences such as
  believing in luck or fate are described are
  described as having an external locus of control.
• Most of us are somewhere in the middle of the
  two.
• Learned helplessness suggests that people who
  have had lots of bad experiences in life become
  apathetic towards certain situations.
• This is a characteristic of many people who are
  depressed.
• Depressed people believe that they are
  worthless, that life is awful and that there is
  no future for them.
• Becks cognitive triad attempts to change the way
  people think about their lives by cognitive
  restructuring training.

159
Week 21

• Summary of stress

160
Week 22

• Abnormality
• Defining abnormal behaviour
• Explaining abnormal behaviour
• Anorexia Bulimia

161
An example of abnormal
162
Even more Abnormal
163
ABNORMALITY

• What is considered ABNORMAL?
• People recognise and label behaviours of others
  that they consider to be abnormal (you must be
  mad/mentally disturbed).
• Labelling usually suggests that the behaviour is
  undesirable and potentially dangerous and so need
  some kind of treatment.
• Even though there are a number of definitions of
  abnormality, not one of them is broad enough to
  cover all instances of abnormal behaviour.
• There are two main factors which influence the
  explanation of abnormal behaviour.
• These can be applied to any of the definitions.
• The factors are historical time period and
  culture and society.
• History
• Demonic possession suggests that people who
  showed strange or bizarre behaviour was due to
  the fact they were possessed by an evil spirit.
  Treatment for possession involved exorcising
  the demons, which was often very barbaric.
• Witchcraft suggested that when a person became
  ill, the first thought was that they were cursed,
  people believed in the power of witches to heal
  as well as to cast spells over people. If people
  (usually women) were found guilty of witchcraft
  (they usually were) then they were drowned or
  burned at the stake.
• Lunatic asylums were introduced later for those
  considered mentally ill. People were usually held
  against their will and women who were considered
  to be promiscuous were often put into these kinds
  of places.

164
Culture

• What is perceived as normal in one culture can be
  considered abnormal in another.
• For example, in western society hearing voices
  or hallucinating are viewed as signs of mental
  illness but in certain cultures, the same
  behaviours are is played by tribal witch doctors
  during rituals, and seen as vital communication
  links with the spirit world.
• Definitions of Abnormality
• Statistical infrequency setting a standard in
  terms of what the average person is doing.
  Statistically infrequent means a behaviour is
  uncommon/rare.
• The normal distribution curve Sd.
• of population
• 
  Very medium very
• 
  Unhappy happy happy

165
HAPPY OR UNHAPPY?

• Where do we draw the line? At what point does
  someone move from happy to unhappy? What is
  average happy?
• The model does not take into account whether the
  behaviour is socially desirable or not. Do we
  assume that it is undesirable to be unhappy?
• How can we convert a behaviour such as happiness
  into a score?
• It also fails to consider history and culture, it
  only measures statistically.

166
Deviation from the social norms

• Setting a standard in terms of what is socially
  acceptable. These include rules regulations,
  both explicit implicit, values and belief
  systems.
• Social norms depend on a number of factors
• Cultural. What is normal in one culture may not
  be the case in another culture.
• Situational. Going to the toilet is normal, but
  not in the middle of a supermarket
• Age. A 3 year old can stare at someone, shout
  out, and even take their clothes off in public,
  without causing disruption.
• If 30 year old teacher did the same, people
  might well react differently.

167
Deviation from the social norms
168
Social deviancy
169

• Gender. All cultures have certain dress codes
  for males and females. However, it is now more
  acceptable to wear unisex clothing. Examples of
  this are women wearing trousers and transvestites
  (lily Savage).
• History. In Victorian times, attitudes towards
  sexuality were repressed.
• Women were seen as wicked, deviant or perverse
  if they had sex outside marriage.
• Attitudes towards masturbation were harsh,
  viewing it as an evil sin which led to blindness.
• Today, sexuality is everywhere and is commonly
  used to promote products, records and films.
• Homosexuality was also viewed as a mental
  illness until 1973. Imagine going to the doctors
  because you are gay!!
• The legal position. It is socially unacceptable
  and illegal to kill someone.
• However, if it happened in battle, a person
  would be regarded ass a hero.
• The death penalty is also viewed as normal in
  some American states (although many regard this
  as immoral). What do people consider to be right
  or wrong in a hierarchy?
• Many people would put child abusers at the top
  of their list, others would put rape, torture or
  murder at the top. We often hear people say that
  certain behaviours are perverse or sick.
• In this way they are making a comment on social
  acceptability.

170
Deviation from the ideal mental health

• Deviation from the ideal mental health- setting a
  standard in terms of what is mentally healthy.
• This means behaving in a way according to the
  way we think about things.
• Jahoda suggests that ideal mental health consists
  of having
• A positive attitude towards yourself.
• The opportunity to self-actualise realise your
  potential (Maslows hierarchy of needs).
• The ability to resist stress.
• Not being too dependent on others (being
  dependent on others for your own well-being gives
  control of your life to other people).
• An accurate idea of reality.
• Do we ever achieve the ideal mental health?

171
Failure to function adequately

• Failure to function adequately- setting a
  standard in terms of normal day to day living.
• This means coping with the demands of daily
  living.
• Seven features of failing to function
• Suffering
• Violation of moral codes
• Irrationality
• Maladaptiveness
• Vividness unconventionality
• Unpredictability and loss of control
• Observer discomfort.
• Ultimately, any number of these features leads to
  social rejection and chastisement.

172
Week 23

• Models of abnormality
• Explaining abnormal behaviour

173
Models of Abnormality

• Assumptions are beliefs held without proof.
• Biological (or medical) model attempts to explain
  abnormal behaviour by suggesting the causes of
  mental disorders are the same as the causes of
  physical illnesses (chemical imbalances caused by
  infection or genetics).
• Therefore, mental illness may be diagnosed,
  labelled and treated in the same way as physical
  illness.
• Treatments typically involve drug treatment
  including anti-anxiety, anti-depressant,
  anti-psychotic and anti-manic drugs.
• ECT involves producing a seizure by passing an
  electrical current through the brain.
• Psychodynamic model attempts to explain abnormal
  behaviours by suggesting they are result of
  anxiety produced by unresolved, unconscious
  conflicts.
• This happens due to the dynamics of the three
  parts of the mind.
• Defence mechanisms such as repression, where
  unacceptable thoughts are pushed into the
  unconsciousness, protect a person from harm.
• However, traumatic events in early childhood may
  result in memories being repressed only to
  resurface later in life in the form of a
  psychological disorder.

174
Explaining abnormal

• Behavioural model attempts to explain abnormal
  behaviours by suggesting that they are learned
  (OC, CC, and SLT) in the same way as any other
  behaviour.
• Classical conditioning (as for abnormality).
  Learning inappropriate behaviour through
  association. If a person experiences a strong
  emotion when placed in a particular situation or
  confronted by a particular object, they learn to
  associate this experience with the event.
• Behavioural treatments include
• Aversion therapy (used for addiction).
• Flooding (confronting a fear or abnormal
  behaviour head on).
• Token economy (given tokens for positive
  behaviour in exchange for rewards.
• Cognitive model attempts to explain abnormal
  behaviours by suggesting they are the result of
  irrational thoughts, expectations and attitudes.
• Psychological disorders can take a variety of
  forms, magnifying the difficulties of a task,
  ovewrgeneralising and arriving at sweeping
  conclusions and persistent negative thinking
  habits
• Treatments include
• Cognitive behaviour therapy (CBT).

175
Week 24

• Anorexia Bulimia

176
AN BN

• Characteristics of AN
• Weight (less than 15 of expected for height and
  age)
• Fear (An intense fear of being overweight or
  becoming fat)
• Refusing to eat adequate amounts of food, which
  results in deliberate weight loss)
• Distorted body image (usually by denying the
  seriousness of the current low of body weight)
• Amenorrhoea (in females, the absence of a least
  three connective menstrual cycles).
• Explaining eating disorders AN/BN
• Biological explanations
• Brain Damage - Research shows that damage to
  parts of the hypothalamus can result in animals
  starving themselves to death.
• Malfunctioning of the hunger centres in this
  part of the brain, therefore, might explain
  eating disorders in humans.
• However, the evidence is