Globalization

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Globalization Language Policy Responses in
Asian Contexts

• Symposium on Language Issues in EMI Universities
  Across Asia
• 8-9 June 2006
• Amy B.M. Tsui
• The University of Hong Kong

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(No Transcript)
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The three circles of English (Crystal, 2003, p.
61)
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The Spread of English

• Is English still spreading?
• Is the spread of English orchestrated / fostered
  and to whose benefit?
• Are there forces and processes transcending the
  English mother-tongue world which may also be
  contributing to the continued spread of English?
• 
  Fishman (1996)

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Globalization

• Characteristics of globalization
• Interconnectivity
• Intensity
• Instantaneity
• Simultaneity
• Mediational Tools (global literacy skills)
• Information technology
• English

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The Spread of English

• Is the spread of English cultural-linguistic
  imperialism / neo-colonialism or the
  democratization of an elitist resource?
• Is English a tool for economic exploitation or a
  multinational tool that enables former colonized
  regions to participate in the world capitalist
  system?
• Does the spread of English necessarily lead to
  the displacement of local languages and cultural
  identities?

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The Spread of English

• English is the inter-national language par
  excellence at the close of the twentieth century,
  and the first language of millions of people
  Many people, , of Africa, India and Europe are
  fully fluent in English, even speak it as their
  principal language, with no loss of their
  cultural identity (Conrad, 1996, p. 21, authors
  emphasis)

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Questions Addressed

• Is English perceived as a multinational tool or
  an imperialistic tool?
• What are Asian countries language policy
  responses to globalization?
• Do these policies lead to the democratization of
  English as an elitist resource?
• Or do they legitimate the hegemony of English and
  the cultural domination of the West?
• How do Asian countries resolve the paradox of
  preserving national cultural identities and
  promoting a foreign language and Western cultures?

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Language Policy Responses to Globalization

• Components of Language Policy
• Language management
• Language practices language varieties language
  use and language pedagogy
• Language ideology (Spolsky, 2004)

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Language Management

• Learning English as a national mission
• The status of English
• as an official language
• as a second / working language
• as a medium of instruction
• Curriculum time and resources

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Learning English as a National Mission

• China Learning English is for the whole nation
• English study fever (yingyu re)
• No. of CET test takers
• 10,000 (1994) to 9.5 million (2004)

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Learning English as a National Mission

• Japan Cultivation of Japanese with English
  abilities (MEXT 2002 White Paper)
• National Strategy and Action Plan
• Ability to interact socially in English for all
  Japanese
• A working knowledge of English for all Japanese
  professionals

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Learning English as a National Mission

• South Korea young uh yul poong (English study
  fervor)
• Six priority areas for development since 1995
• Korean culture and Korean way of thinking (i.e.,
  consciousness)
• English language education focus of educational
  reform

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Learning English as a National Mission

• Malaysia English and national interest
• Bahasa Malaysia has been given pride of place
  as the national language. The time has come to
  give English significant priority. It will be in
  the national interest to do so. In fact, the
  national interest demands it. (Singh, 1993, Dec
  29, p.3, cited in Gill, 2004, p. 144)

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English as an official language MOI

• Japan
• Proposal to adopt English as a second official
  language (2000)
• Establish 100 super high schools using English
  as MOI by 2005
• South Korea
• Proposals to adopt English an official English,
  to make English the new mother tongue (1999)
• Proposals created a second crisis after
  Japanese occupation (Yim, 2003)

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English as an official language MOI

• Malaysia
• 26 (1958-1983 / 1985) years to complete
  Malay-medium education at all levels of education
  
• 1993 / 1996 English as MOI re-introduced at
  tertiary level
• 2003 starting from P1, S1 S6 for science and
  math
• China
• English as MOI in private schools
• English as MOI for science technology in some
  tertiary institutions

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English as an official language MOI

• Cambodia
• English displaced French as preferred medium
• Vietnam
• English adopted as a second language over and
  above former colonial languages
• Nepal, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Bangladesh
• English as MOI
• Language policy dictated by linguistic
  preferences of international aid agencies

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Resolving the Paradox Reconstructing National
Cultural Identity through the discourse of
English

• A national culture is a discourse a way of
  constructing meaning which influences and
  organizes both our actions and our conceptions of
  ourselves National cultures construct
  identities by producing meanings about the
  nation with which we can identify these are
  contained in the stories which are told about it,
  memories which connect its present with its past,
  images which are constructed of it. (Stuart
  Hall, 1996, p. 613, original emphasis)

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Elements of Identity Construction

• Uniqueness of a nation or national culture
• Shared historical memory
• Future adversities and achievements of the nation
• Origin, continuity, tradition and timelessness of
  the nation

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Resolving the Paradox

• China Re-defining national greatness HK
• Japan Deconstructing English and reaffirming
  Japaneseness
• South Korea English as a new language of
  nationalism
• Malaysia Reconstructing nationalism through
  English
• Singapore National identity crafted in English
  with Asian images

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China Re-defining national greatness

• Only by constantly improving our economic
  strength, national defense strength, and national
  cohesiveness, can we remain invincible amidst
  increasingly intensive international competition
  and truly safeguard our national sovereignty and
  national pride. (Jiang Zhemin Cited in Moore,
  2000, p.122 )

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China Re-defining national greatness

• I hope all the classes will be taught in
  English. I dont worship foreign languages, but
  we need to exchange our ideas with the rest of
  the world. (Zhu Rongji, China varsities to teach
  in English, 2001, September 20, cited in Gill,
  2004).
• Hong Kong Resinicization and
  retention of EMI education

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Japan Deconstructing English reaffirming
Japaneseness

• 1994 assimilation of foreign culture must be
  changed
• 1998 cultivation of Japanese identity as one of
  the
• aims of the national curriculum
• 2003 learning Japanese is a prerequisite for
  learning
• English
• Deconstructing English is removing English from
  the core identity of Japan by treating it as a
  mere technical tool and by reaffirming the unique
  cultural values and qualities of the Japanese,
  hence maintaining cultural independence from the
  West (Hashimoto, 2000, p. 49)

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S. Korea English curriculum as a mediating tool
for national identity construction

• In order to win, know your enemy better.
  Koreans can only overtake its competitors by
  getting intimately familiar with them (Yim,
  2003, p. 42)

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S. Korea English curriculum as a mediating tool
for national identity construction

• Koreans are very proud of their language. Their
  language is called Korean. Written Korean is
  called Hangeul. It was invented in 1443
  Hangeul is very easy to read and write. So almost
  every Korean can read and write. In some
  countries people cannot read or write because
  their written language is too difficult. This is
  not true in Korea.
• My history teacher says that it Korean
  history goes back as far as five thousand years
  ago. Koreans are very proud of our long history.
  
• 
  (Ji Hak Sa II, Lesson 10)

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Malaysia Reconstructing nationalism through
English

• Learning the English language will reinforce
  the spirit of nationalism when it is used to
  bring about development and progress for the
  country. True nationalism means doing
  everything possible for the country, even if it
  means learning the English language (Mahathir
  Mohamad, The Sun, Sept 11, 1999, my emphasis).
  

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Malaysia Reconstructing nationalism through
English

• We believe that a nationalist is someone who
  has acquired all the knowledge and mastered all
  the skills and is capable of contesting against
  the rest of the world. But they (some Malaysians)
  think that just being able to speak Malay makes
  you a nationalist, and that is wrong. (Mahathir
  Mohamad, New Straits Times, December 29, 2000)

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Singapore National identity crafted in English
with Asian images

• A uniquely Singaporean identity is being
  crafted in English, but with Asian imagery and
  imagination. A major paradox is that English
  has emerged as the only contender for the supra
  link language to express a uniquely Singaporean
  identity and yet it is at the same time perceived
  to be the channel for avant garde,
  pseudo-westernized behaviours as opposed to
  conservative beliefs and practices grounded in
  and transmitted via ethnic languages. (Pakir,
  2004, p. 124-125)

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Democratization of English English as a
resource for democratization

• Is English perceived as a multinational tool or
  an imperialistic tool?
• What are Asian countries language policy
  responses to globalization?
• Do these policies lead to the democratization of
  English as an elitist resource?
• Or do they legitimate the hegemony of English and
  the cultural domination of the West?
• How do Asian countries resolve the paradox of
  preserving national cultural identities and
  promoting a foreign language and Western
  cultures?

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• There are so many different languages in the
  world. Korean is the language of Korea, and
  Japanese is the language of Japan. Is English
  especially important because it is spoken by so
  many different countries? What about Chinese
  which is spoken by the large number of people?
  One language can be more important than another.
  Think of English, which has become an
  international language. However, the most
  important language to anyone is the language he
  uses in his everyday life. To us Korean, the
  mother tongue is Korea. (The history of Korean
  language continues. ) Many Koreans think that it
  is better than any other alphabet in the world.
  It is right for us to love our own language. (Ji
  Hak Sa, cited in Yim, 2003, p. 17)

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Amy B. M. Tsui James W. Tollefson (Eds.) (2006)
Language Culture and Identity in Asian Contexts.
Mahwah, N.J. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
James W. Tollefson Amy B. M. Tsui (Eds.) (2004)
Medium of Instruction Policies Whose Agenda?
Which Agenda? Mahwah, N.J. Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.