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Globalization

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Title: Globalization


1
Globalization Language Policy Responses in
Asian Contexts
  • Symposium on Language Issues in EMI Universities
    Across Asia
  • 8-9 June 2006
  • Amy B.M. Tsui
  • The University of Hong Kong

2
(No Transcript)
3
The three circles of English (Crystal, 2003, p.
61)
4
The Spread of English
  • Is English still spreading?
  • Is the spread of English orchestrated / fostered
    and to whose benefit?
  • Are there forces and processes transcending the
    English mother-tongue world which may also be
    contributing to the continued spread of English?

  • Fishman (1996)

5
Globalization
  • Characteristics of globalization
  • Interconnectivity
  • Intensity
  • Instantaneity
  • Simultaneity
  • Mediational Tools (global literacy skills)
  • Information technology
  • English

6
The Spread of English
  • Is the spread of English cultural-linguistic
    imperialism / neo-colonialism or the
    democratization of an elitist resource?
  • Is English a tool for economic exploitation or a
    multinational tool that enables former colonized
    regions to participate in the world capitalist
    system?
  • Does the spread of English necessarily lead to
    the displacement of local languages and cultural
    identities?

7
The Spread of English
  • English is the inter-national language par
    excellence at the close of the twentieth century,
    and the first language of millions of people
    Many people, , of Africa, India and Europe are
    fully fluent in English, even speak it as their
    principal language, with no loss of their
    cultural identity (Conrad, 1996, p. 21, authors
    emphasis)

8
Questions Addressed
  • Is English perceived as a multinational tool or
    an imperialistic tool?
  • What are Asian countries language policy
    responses to globalization?
  • Do these policies lead to the democratization of
    English as an elitist resource?
  • Or do they legitimate the hegemony of English and
    the cultural domination of the West?
  • How do Asian countries resolve the paradox of
    preserving national cultural identities and
    promoting a foreign language and Western cultures?

9
Language Policy Responses to Globalization
  • Components of Language Policy
  • Language management
  • Language practices language varieties language
    use and language pedagogy
  • Language ideology (Spolsky, 2004)

10
Language Management
  • Learning English as a national mission
  • The status of English
  • as an official language
  • as a second / working language
  • as a medium of instruction
  • Curriculum time and resources

11
Learning English as a National Mission
  • China Learning English is for the whole nation
  • English study fever (yingyu re)
  • No. of CET test takers
  • 10,000 (1994) to 9.5 million (2004)

12
Learning English as a National Mission
  • Japan Cultivation of Japanese with English
    abilities (MEXT 2002 White Paper)
  • National Strategy and Action Plan
  • Ability to interact socially in English for all
    Japanese
  • A working knowledge of English for all Japanese
    professionals

13
Learning English as a National Mission
  • South Korea young uh yul poong (English study
    fervor)
  • Six priority areas for development since 1995
  • Korean culture and Korean way of thinking (i.e.,
    consciousness)
  • English language education focus of educational
    reform

14
Learning English as a National Mission
  • Malaysia English and national interest
  • Bahasa Malaysia has been given pride of place
    as the national language. The time has come to
    give English significant priority. It will be in
    the national interest to do so. In fact, the
    national interest demands it. (Singh, 1993, Dec
    29, p.3, cited in Gill, 2004, p. 144)

15
English as an official language MOI
  • Japan
  • Proposal to adopt English as a second official
    language (2000)
  • Establish 100 super high schools using English
    as MOI by 2005
  • South Korea
  • Proposals to adopt English an official English,
    to make English the new mother tongue (1999)
  • Proposals created a second crisis after
    Japanese occupation (Yim, 2003)

16
English as an official language MOI
  • Malaysia
  • 26 (1958-1983 / 1985) years to complete
    Malay-medium education at all levels of education
  • 1993 / 1996 English as MOI re-introduced at
    tertiary level
  • 2003 starting from P1, S1 S6 for science and
    math
  • China
  • English as MOI in private schools
  • English as MOI for science technology in some
    tertiary institutions

17
English as an official language MOI
  • Cambodia
  • English displaced French as preferred medium
  • Vietnam
  • English adopted as a second language over and
    above former colonial languages
  • Nepal, Bangladesh, Cambodia, Bangladesh
  • English as MOI
  • Language policy dictated by linguistic
    preferences of international aid agencies

18
Resolving the Paradox Reconstructing National
Cultural Identity through the discourse of
English
  • A national culture is a discourse a way of
    constructing meaning which influences and
    organizes both our actions and our conceptions of
    ourselves National cultures construct
    identities by producing meanings about the
    nation with which we can identify these are
    contained in the stories which are told about it,
    memories which connect its present with its past,
    images which are constructed of it. (Stuart
    Hall, 1996, p. 613, original emphasis)

19
Elements of Identity Construction
  • Uniqueness of a nation or national culture
  • Shared historical memory
  • Future adversities and achievements of the nation
  • Origin, continuity, tradition and timelessness of
    the nation

20
Resolving the Paradox
  • China Re-defining national greatness HK
  • Japan Deconstructing English and reaffirming
    Japaneseness
  • South Korea English as a new language of
    nationalism
  • Malaysia Reconstructing nationalism through
    English
  • Singapore National identity crafted in English
    with Asian images

21
China Re-defining national greatness
  • Only by constantly improving our economic
    strength, national defense strength, and national
    cohesiveness, can we remain invincible amidst
    increasingly intensive international competition
    and truly safeguard our national sovereignty and
    national pride. (Jiang Zhemin Cited in Moore,
    2000, p.122 )

22
China Re-defining national greatness
  • I hope all the classes will be taught in
    English. I dont worship foreign languages, but
    we need to exchange our ideas with the rest of
    the world. (Zhu Rongji, China varsities to teach
    in English, 2001, September 20, cited in Gill,
    2004).
  • Hong Kong Resinicization and
    retention of EMI education

23
Japan Deconstructing English reaffirming
Japaneseness
  • 1994 assimilation of foreign culture must be
    changed
  • 1998 cultivation of Japanese identity as one of
    the
  • aims of the national curriculum
  • 2003 learning Japanese is a prerequisite for
    learning
  • English
  • Deconstructing English is removing English from
    the core identity of Japan by treating it as a
    mere technical tool and by reaffirming the unique
    cultural values and qualities of the Japanese,
    hence maintaining cultural independence from the
    West (Hashimoto, 2000, p. 49)

24
S. Korea English curriculum as a mediating tool
for national identity construction
  • In order to win, know your enemy better.
    Koreans can only overtake its competitors by
    getting intimately familiar with them (Yim,
    2003, p. 42)

25
S. Korea English curriculum as a mediating tool
for national identity construction
  • Koreans are very proud of their language. Their
    language is called Korean. Written Korean is
    called Hangeul. It was invented in 1443
    Hangeul is very easy to read and write. So almost
    every Korean can read and write. In some
    countries people cannot read or write because
    their written language is too difficult. This is
    not true in Korea.
  • My history teacher says that it Korean
    history goes back as far as five thousand years
    ago. Koreans are very proud of our long history.

  • (Ji Hak Sa II, Lesson 10)

26
Malaysia Reconstructing nationalism through
English
  • Learning the English language will reinforce
    the spirit of nationalism when it is used to
    bring about development and progress for the
    country. True nationalism means doing
    everything possible for the country, even if it
    means learning the English language (Mahathir
    Mohamad, The Sun, Sept 11, 1999, my emphasis).

27
Malaysia Reconstructing nationalism through
English
  • We believe that a nationalist is someone who
    has acquired all the knowledge and mastered all
    the skills and is capable of contesting against
    the rest of the world. But they (some Malaysians)
    think that just being able to speak Malay makes
    you a nationalist, and that is wrong. (Mahathir
    Mohamad, New Straits Times, December 29, 2000)

28
Singapore National identity crafted in English
with Asian images
  • A uniquely Singaporean identity is being
    crafted in English, but with Asian imagery and
    imagination. A major paradox is that English
    has emerged as the only contender for the supra
    link language to express a uniquely Singaporean
    identity and yet it is at the same time perceived
    to be the channel for avant garde,
    pseudo-westernized behaviours as opposed to
    conservative beliefs and practices grounded in
    and transmitted via ethnic languages. (Pakir,
    2004, p. 124-125)

29
Democratization of English English as a
resource for democratization
  • Is English perceived as a multinational tool or
    an imperialistic tool?
  • What are Asian countries language policy
    responses to globalization?
  • Do these policies lead to the democratization of
    English as an elitist resource?
  • Or do they legitimate the hegemony of English and
    the cultural domination of the West?
  • How do Asian countries resolve the paradox of
    preserving national cultural identities and
    promoting a foreign language and Western
    cultures?

30
  • There are so many different languages in the
    world. Korean is the language of Korea, and
    Japanese is the language of Japan. Is English
    especially important because it is spoken by so
    many different countries? What about Chinese
    which is spoken by the large number of people?
    One language can be more important than another.
    Think of English, which has become an
    international language. However, the most
    important language to anyone is the language he
    uses in his everyday life. To us Korean, the
    mother tongue is Korea. (The history of Korean
    language continues. ) Many Koreans think that it
    is better than any other alphabet in the world.
    It is right for us to love our own language. (Ji
    Hak Sa, cited in Yim, 2003, p. 17)

31
Amy B. M. Tsui James W. Tollefson (Eds.) (2006)
Language Culture and Identity in Asian Contexts.
Mahwah, N.J. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
James W. Tollefson Amy B. M. Tsui (Eds.) (2004)
Medium of Instruction Policies Whose Agenda?
Which Agenda? Mahwah, N.J. Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates.
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