Diction

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Diction

• Say What You Mean and Mean What You Say

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Diction

• Is at the heart of any discussion about style
• word choice, figurative language, sound of
  sentences
• Above and beyond grammar, creates the tone of a
  text

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Dictionaries

• OED online
• Search library catalogue
• Search term OED online (in quotation marks)
• Must sign in to use (uleth user name student id
  number)

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Diction

• Tone
• the speakers attitude toward the subject matter
  or audience, as revealed by the choice of
  language and the rhythms of speech
• E.g. sarcastic, matter-of-fact, cold, energetic,
  academic, humorous, etc.

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Diction

• Level of language
• Formal
• characterized by a learned vocabulary and
  grammatically correct forms. Does not usually
  include colloquialisms
• Informal
• language closest to everyday conversation may
  include colloquialisms and slang

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Diction

• Level of language
• Slang
• Lively, colourful language that is often limited
  to certain groups (social, regional) and passes
  in and out of fashion
• Fine Writing
• Unnecessarily formal or pretentious diction

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Two-Part Verbs

• Simple verb in combination with another word or
  words
• E.g. cool off, sit down, find out
• Often form idiomatic expressions that are
  informal or colloquial in tone
• Avoid or use sparingly in academic writing

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Figurative Language

• Provides a writer with the opportunity to write
  imaginatively, while also testing the imagination
  of the reader
• Helps readers visualize what is being written
  about
• Enhances style by making texts more interesting
• Sharpens meaning

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Imagery

• Creates pictures in the readers mind, and also
  suggests a number of imaginative associations

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Figure of Speech

• An example of figurative language that states
  something that is not literally true in order to
  create an effect
• Some common figures of speech are

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Simile

• A comparison using like or as. The
  similarity between two objects is made explicit
  there is no pretence of absolute identity.
• Example
• The river is like a snake winding across the
  plain.

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Metaphor

• An assertion that two things in some way similar
  are identical
• Example
• The river is a snake winding across the plain.
• The river snakes its way across the plain.
• The river winds snakily across the plain.

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Irony

• Recognition of the difference between real and
  apparent meaning
• There are many different types of irony, but the
  three most common in academic writing is

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Verbal Irony

• The contrast is between the literal meaning of
  what is said and what is meant the meaning of
  the words used is the opposite of their sense.
• Satire (and its cousin sarcasm) is a form of
  verbal irony.

15
Figurative Language Gone Wrong

• Inappropriate Metaphors
• Create images that dont make sense or are
  inappropriate for your audience
• Overextended Metaphors
• Are too long, and the metaphor takes control in
  other words, the point you want to make is lost

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Figurative Language Gone Wrong

• Dead Metaphors Clichés
• Have little force and tend to be ineffective
• Mixed Metaphors
• Abruptly switch from one comparison to another
  without intending to

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Concrete and Abstract Diction

• Concrete words
• Denote tangible things capable of being
  apprehended by the physical senses
• Abstract words
• Denote intangible things like ideas or qualities

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Concrete and Abstract Diction

• You need a combination of both, but be sure to
  ground your writing in the concrete (use specific
  examples to illustrate your points)
• Readers remember the concrete it illustrates
  and lends meaning to the abstract
• The more specific (i.e. concrete) your writing
  is, the clearer and more effective it will be

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Weak Generalizations

• AVOID AT ALL COSTS!!!
• Use examples and always be specific
• Employ
• Figurative language
• Imagery
• Research sources
• as necessitated by the assignment

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Denotation and Connotation

• Denotation
• What a word means (dictionary definition)
• What a word signifies without emotional
  associations, judgements, or opinions
• Connotation
• What a word suggests
• Usually determined through context

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Denotation and Connotation

• When choosing words, pay attention to connotative
  meanings that you may not intend
• Example
• Brash denotes confidence, but has negative
  connotations
• Self-assured also denotes confidence, but it
  carries more positive connotations

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Euphemism

• An inoffensive or positive word or phrase used to
  avoid a harsh, unpleasant, or distasteful reality
• A tactful word or phrase which avoids directly
  mentioning a painful reality
• (from William Lutz, The World of Doublespeak
• Only the first definition constitutes
  doublespeak
• doublespeak is misleading or deceiving

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Jargon

• The specialized language of a trade, profession,
  or similar group
• Is doublespeak if it is used to make the simple
  seem complex, used not to express but to
  impress (Lutz)

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Bureaucratese

• A method of piling on words to overwhelm the
  audience
• it sounds good but really makes no sense

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Inflated Language

• Remember Fine Writing?
• Political correctness can fall into this category
• Often also constitutes a kind of euphamism

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Wrong Word

• Incorrect word choice is a common student error
• If you arent sure what word to use, consult your
  dictionary

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Wordiness Redundancy

• Clear the deadwood strive for clarity and
  precision
• Remember less is more (think of the exercise we
  did to reduce the number of prepositional phrases
  in sentences)

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Wordiness Redundancy

• As you proofread and revise a text, delete
  unnecessary words but keep or add exact ones .

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Wordiness Redundancy

• Wordy first draft
• In the early part of the month of February there
  was a really mean blizzard with very high winds
  that was moving threateningly toward Halifax.
•  First revision
• In the early part of the month of February there
  was a really mean blizzard with very high winds
  that was moving threateningly toward Halifax.

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Wordiness Redundancy

• Second revision
• In early February a (really mean) vicious
  blizzard with (very high) 150-kilometer-per-hour
  winds was (moving threateningly toward)
  threatening Halifax.
• Finished copy
• In early February a vicious blizzard with
  150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening
  Halifax.

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Wordiness Redundancy

• Compare
• In the early part of the month of February there
  was a really mean blizzard with very high winds
  that was moving threateningly toward Halifax.
• In early February a vicious blizzard with
  150-kilometer-per-hour winds was threatening
  Halifax.

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Wordiness Redundancy

• Make every word count
• Omit words or phrases that add nothing to your
  meaning
• Guidelines for omitting wordiness

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Wordiness Redundancy

• Avoid tautology (the use of different words to
  say the same thing)
• Wordy
• Commuters going back and forth to work or school
  formed carpools.
• Concise
• Commuters formed carpools.

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Wordiness Redundancy

• The useless words in brackets below serve only to
  echo meaning
• Avoid such wordiness in your own writing
• yellow in colour
• circular in shape
• at 945 pm that night
• return back
• basic essentials
• bitter-tasting drink
• but though

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Wordiness Redundancy

• Do not use many words when a few will express the
  idea well
• Wordy
• In the event that the evaluation system is
  changed, expect complaints on the part of
  employees.
• Concise
• If the evaluation system is changed, expect
  complaints from employees. (2 words take the
  place of 8)

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Wordiness Redundancy

• Wordy
• As far as sexism is concerned, it seems to me
  that a woman can be as guilty of sexism as a man.
• Concise
• A woman can be as guilty of sexism as a man. (11
  useless words deleted)

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Wordiness Redundancy

• Beware ready-made phrases
• at this point in time?now
• bring to a conclusion?conclude
• during the same time that?while
• in a great many instances?often
• on account of the fact that?because
• situated in the vicinity of?near
• was of the opinion that?believed
• by means of ?by
• due to the fact that ?because

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Passive Voice

• Passive voice is wordy.
• Active voice is direct.
• Example
• Be assured that action will be taken.
• I assure you that I will act.
• Passive voice often leaves the actor of the verb
  out of the construction (as in the example above).

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Awkward Repetition

• Avoid careless or needless repetition of a word
  or phrase
• Faulty
• This interesting instructor knows how to make an
  uninteresting subject interesting. 
• Revised
• This instructor knows how to make a dull subject
  interesting.

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Awkward Repetition

• Awkward
• We had problems solving these problems.
• Revised
• We had a hard time solving these problems.
• Awkward
• His boss is not like her boss. Her boss is more
  reliable than his boss.
• Revised
• Their bosses are different. Hers is more
  reliable than his.

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Awkward Repetition

• Avoid carelessly repeating a root or word base.
• Awkward
• I got the impression that his expression of
  sympathy was insincere.
• Revised
• I felt that his expression of sympathy was
  insincere.

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Awkward Repetition

• Eliminate careless rhymes and other distracting
  repetition of sounds.
• Awkward
• The use of catalytic converters is just one
  contribution to the solution of the problem of
  air pollution.
• Revised
• The use of catalytic converters is just one way
  to help reduce air pollution.

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Politics and the English Language (by George
Orwell)

• Written in 1946, yet his complaints about Modern
  English still relevant
• The errors and shortcuts that he points out are
  those we have just discussed

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Politics and the English Language

• Questions writers should ask themselves
• What am I trying to say?
• What words will express it?
• What image or idiom will make it clearer?
• Is this image fresh enough to have an effect?
• Could I put it more shortly?
• Have I said anything that is avoidably ugly?

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Politics and the English Language

• Orwell wants us to ground our writing in the
  concrete rather than in the abstract.
• Be specific, not vague.
• Choose rather than simply accept the language
  that you use come up with your own metaphors
  and turns of phrase rather than using ready-mades.

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Politics and the English Language

• Rules writers should follow
• Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of
  speech which you are used to seeing in print.
• Never use a long word where a short one will do.
• If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut
  it out.

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Politics and the English Language

• (Rules contd)
• Never use the passive voice where you can use the
  active.
• Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or
  a jargon word if you can think of an everyday
  English equivalent.
• Break any of these rules sooner than say anything
  outright barbarous.