FWM 203 PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION IN TROPICAL AFRICA

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FWM 203PRINCIPLES OF CONSERVATION IN TROPICAL
AFRICA

•  
• DEPARTMENT OF FORESTRY AND WILDLIFE
  MANAGEMENT
• COLLEGE OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESOURCES
  MANAGEMENT
• UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE,
  ABEOKUTA

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Definition of Terms

• Conservation is the management of human use of
  the biosphere so that it may yield the greatest
  sustainable benefit to present generations, while
  maintaining its potential to meet the needs and
  aspiration of future generations. Conservation as
  rendered involves preservation, maintenance,
  sustainable utilization, restoration and
  enhancement of the natural environment.
• Wildlife or Wild animal species refers to all
  living things, plants, invertebrates and
  vertebrates outside the direct control of man
  (that is, all non-cultivated plants and
  non-domesticated animals). It embraces all
  animals in their natural habitat. They are
  undomesticated animals which may be small
  organisms only visible to humans if seen through
  a microscope or as big as the elephant or whale.
  Wildlife includes but it is not limited to
  insects, spiders and birds, reptiles, fish,
  amphibians, and mammals if not domesticated (NCF,
  1994).
• Biodiversity or Biological diversity refers to
  the total variability of living organisms on the
  planet (UNEP, 1995). It is defined in terms of
  genes, species and ecosystem which are the
  outcome of over 3,000 million years of evolution.
  As biological concept, biodiversity is an
  essential or a necessary tool for human survival.

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Definition of Terms (CONTD)

• Wildlife management has been defined as the
  combination and application of business methods
  and ecological knowledge to manipulate
  undomesticated fauna and flora (wild animal and
  plant) resources in a way that ensures their
  products and services will be sustained. The
  application of ecological principles and
  knowledge to the management of wildlife entails
  certain basic approaches viz
• Preservation of wild species and allowing nature
  to follow a balance, devoid of any human
  intervention.
• Direct or indirect manipulations of wild fauna
  population such as through cropping, culling,
  habitat alteration and other habitat management
  tool so as not to exceed carrying capacity.
• Maintenance of useful and desirable species.
• Sustained-yield management through limiting
  consumptive utilization to annual production
  capacity.

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Definition of Terms (CONTD)

• Consumptive utilization is the extraction of
  resources for the production of consumer goods
  and services. Apart from providing food other
  types of consumptive uses of wildlife include
  products such as skins and hides, materials for
  hand crafts, or ceremonial uses , oils and
  medicines, live animal trades, sport, hunting,
  stock resources for domestication or improvement
  of domesticated breeds, farming activities and
  mineral resources exploitation. All activities
  directed towards production of goods and services
  which often lead to the degradation of the
  environment.
• Non-consumptive utilization is defined as the
  provision of natural amenities and services for
  recreational use such as game viewing, nature
  trail, swimming, boating and other water related
  recreational activities in lake and waterfall. It
  includes spiritual and religious values, values
  due to the willingness of local and international
  user-public (tourist) to pay to see living and
  non-living resources in the natural setting.
• Sustainable use is the rate of harvest within the
  capacity of species and their habitats to
  maintain themselves. Sustainable use can be
  non-consumptive or consumptive in nature.
• Commercial use is defined as the management of
  native wildlife for profit. The terms utilization
  and commercial use are interchangeable.

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Status Categories of Species

• Extinct (Ex) species has not been seen in the
  wild or in captivity during the past 50 years.
• Extinct In the Wild (BW) As above, but the
  species is still held in zoological gardens on
  other live collection.
• Ecological Extinction is defined as the reduction
  of a species to such low abundance that though it
  is still present in the community, it no longer
  interacts significantly with other species.

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Status Categories of Species

• Extirpation species is not extinct, but no
  longer occurring in a wild state or no longer
  exhibiting patterns of use.
• Critically Endangered (CR) The species is very
  threatened and at risk of becoming extinct.
• Endangered (EN) Any native species in immense
  danger of extirpation or extinction. Species is
  unlikely to survive if the factor thus is posing
  threat persists.
• Vulnerable (VU) Likely to become endangered in
  the future if factor that is posing threat
  persists.

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Status Categories of Species

• Near Threatened (NT) Species is approaching the
  threshold of vulnerability.
• Data Deficient (DD) Strongly suspected or
  thought to belong to one of the above categories
  but data is insufficient to substantiate.
• Rare (R) Species has small global population
  that is not threatened but is at risk.

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Status Categories of Species

• Low Risk-Conservation Dependent (LR/CD) Species
  is in no immediate danger, but survival will
  depend on implementation of effective
  conservation measures in its range.
• Low Risk-Not threatened (LR/NT) Species is in no
  immediate danger, but needs to be consistently
  monitored.
• (Adapted from IUCN threatened species categories
  1996)

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NATURAL RESOURCES

• Natural resources are naturally occurring
  resources in the environment that have not been
  disturbed by mankind. By resource is meant any
  physical entity, which has limited availability.
  These resources occur in their natural form. Few
  examples of natural resources are
• Air, wind and atmosphere
• Plants (Flora)
• Animals (Fauna)
• Wildlife
• Forest
• Coal and fossil fuels
• Range and pasture
• Soils
• Water, oceans, lakes and rivers

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NATURAL RESOURCES

• Biotic Natural ResourcesNatural resources
  extracted from the biosphere of earth are
  categorized as biotic. The biotic resources can
  be obtained in the raw form, or by means of
  cultivation through agriculture. Petroleum is a
  resource that has to be included in the category
  of biotic natural resources. This is because, it
  has an organic origin. The following list
  provides names of resources directly obtained
  from the biosphere. Timber , Petroleum, Natural
  Gas, Fruits, Wax (tree wax).
• Abiotic Natural ResourcesMinerals, metals and
  other such materials (non-living) fall in the
  category of abiotic natural resources.The
  different abiotic natural resources are enlisted
  below. Gold, Coal ,Diamond , Silver, Bauxite ,
  Nickel, Copper , Limestone e.t.c.

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THE NEED FOR CONSERVATION

• It is known that mans survival, comfort and
  development depends largely on materials
  obtainable from natural resources. We rely on
  these resources for air, food, water, clothing,
  shelter minerals and drugs. However, these
  resources can become non renewable if the demand
  and utilization exceeds its recycling capacity.
  In this case, exploitation is said to have
  exceeded the rate of the production of these
  resources. Indicators of such hazard
  exploitation of such natural resources in Nigeria
  include
• (1) Increase desertification and drought in the
  north.
• (2) Soil erosion and gully erosion e.g in Gombe
  Eastern States
• (3) Deforestation in the west
• (4) It result in poor yield of crops in farmlands
  that are not artificially fertilised
• (5) It results in the decline in the population
  of wild flora and fauna species.

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SPECIES LOSS A GLOBAL CONCERN

• Available evidence indicates that human
  activities are leading to the loss of the
  planets biological diversity which implies
  erosion of biological resources that are
  essential for future development. For instance
  it has been observed that normal states of
  extinction (disappearance of species) of many of
  the worlds biological resources have accelerated
  and result of on going destruction of forests and
  other biological rich habitats. It is estimated
  that by the year 2020, one million or more
  species of plants animals and other microbes
  would have been lost to the planet (United Nation
  Agenda 21, 1993).

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FACTORS THAT HINDERS SPECIES ABUNDANCE

• 1. Changing environment
• 2. Man wild life conflict
• 3. Hunting and poaching
• 4. The use of mammals as foods
• 5. Wild mammals as pests
• 6. Wild mammals as disease vectors
• 7. Economic policies
• 8. Climaterics changes in weather condition
• 9. Pollution

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METHOD OF CONSERVING NATURAL RESOURCES

• In-situ Conservation
• In-situ conservation means "on-site
  conservation". It is the process of protecting an
  endangered plant or animal species in its natural
  habitat, either by protecting or cleaning up the
  habitat itself, or by defending the species from
  predators. In-situ conservation, the conservation
  of species in their natural habitats, is
  considered the most appropriate way of conserving
  biodiversity. Conserving the areas where
  populations of species exist naturally is an
  underlying condition for the conservation of
  biodiversity. That's why protected areas form a
  central element of any national strategy to
  conserve biodiversity.

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METHOD OF CONSERVING NATURAL RESOURCES

• Ex-situ Conservation
• Ex-situ conservation means literally, "off-site
  conservation". Ex-situ conservation is the
  preservation of components of biological
  diversity outside their natural habitats.  It is
  the process of protecting an endangered species
  of plant or animal by removing part of the
  population from a threatened habitat and placing
  it in a new location, which may be a wild area or
  within the care of humans. This involves
  conservation of genetic resources, as well as
  wild and cultivated species, and draws on a
  diverse body of techniques and facilities.  Some
  of these include
• Gene banks, e.g. seed banks, sperm and ova banks,
  field banks

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METHOD OF CONSERVING NATURAL RESOURCES

• In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture
  collections
• Captive breeding of animals and artificial
  propagation of plants, with possible
  reintroduction into the wild and
• Collecting living organisms for zoos, aquaria,
  and botanic gardens for research and public
  awareness.

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METHOD OF CONSERVING NATURAL RESOURCES

• Ex-situ conservation measures can be
  complementary to in-situ methods as they provide
  an "insurance policy" against extinction. These
  measures also have a valuable role to play in
  recovery programmes for endangered species.  The
  Kew Seed Bank in England has 1.5 per cent of the
  world's flora - about 4,000 species - on deposit.
  
• In agriculture, ex-situ conservation measures
  maintain domesticated plants which cannot survive
  in nature unaided. Ex-situ conservation provides
  excellent research opportunities on the
  components of biological diversity. Some of these
  institutions also play a central role in public
  education and awareness raising by bringing
  members of the public into contact with plants
  and animals they may not normally come in contact
  with. It is estimated that worldwide, over 600
  million people visit zoos every year. Ex situ
  conservation measures should support in-situ
  conservation measures (in-situ conservation
  should be the primary objective).

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CONSERVATION POLICIES AND OBJECTIVES

• There are four main policies and objectives of
  conserving wildlife spp. They are
• 1. Maintenance of essential ecological processes
  and life support system
• 2. Preservation of genetic diversity
• 3. Sustainable Utilization of Flora and Fauna spp
  and the ecosystem
• 4. Preservation of historical site, land scopes,
  or geomorphological formation that has cultural
  scientific or aesthetic value.

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METHODS OF CONSERVING RARE FAUNA SPP.

• These are divided into two
• A. Saving Endangered wild Fauna spp. From
  extinction
• 1. Granting national park or game reserves status
  to operate
• 2. Taking most of the animals if not all into
  captivity for breeding and returning them back to
  the natural wild habitat
• 3. Translocating the animals from endangered zone
  to a place of safety such as the national park,
  game reserve, wildlife sanctuary and release
  them.
• Public education and scientific research into
  captive breeding.

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METHODS OF CONSERVING RARE FAUNA SPP.

• B. Method relating to preventing fauna spp from
  spp reaching near extinction
• 1. Effective and regular public enlightenment
  programme on values of conserving natural
  resources rather than emphasizing penalties on
  poaching.
• 2. Motivating and increasing the numbers of game
  reservation staffs for regular patrol and
  effective surveillance within and outside the
  protected area.
• 3. Equipping the staff in the game reserve with
  good communication gadgets and modern weapons for
  defence.
• 4. Imposing stiffer penalty or imprisonment or
  fines on poachers
• 5. Check illegal grazing of domestic livestock
  and poaching in conservation area to reduce
  lopping of trees, illegal bush fire, curtail
  diseases transmission from domestic livestock to
  wildlife stock e.g. the rinderpest disease out
  break in Yankari National Park Bauchi state was
  believed to have originated from domestic
  livestock.

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Reasons for Controlling Stocking

• 1. To maintain the ecological relationship
  existing between the biotic and a biotic
  communities.
• 2. To maintain the production capacity of the
  habitat without deterioration.
• 3. To avoid depletion of the food resources.

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METHODS OF CONSERVING VEGETATION

• i. Imposing stiffer penalties on indiscriminate
  cutting of trees.
• ii. Enlightening the citizens on the
  indiscriminate or uncontrolled bush burning
• iii. Afforestation programme nationwide and if
  all levels, states, federal, family, world and
  individual
• iv. Encourage the use of coal, gas, kerosene,
  solar energy and other non-wood energy sources
• v. Provision of subsidies by federal and state
  government for use of other fuels instead of fuel
  wood and the adoption of improved and efficient
  cooking stove.

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TRAITS OF VULNERABLE SPECIES

• Some species of animals have attributes that make
  them more
• vulnerable than others some of the major
  characteristic traits are
• Specialization Not all species are equally
  vulnerable to being destroyed or wipeout. Those
  vulnerable tend to be specialists, organisms that
  live within a narrow range of tolerance. Owen
  and Charias (1985) categories the feeding habit
  of animals into two categories. The stenophagous
  animal, which maintains a specialized, or limited
  diet and are therefore prone to starvation when
  their usual foods are scarce. An example is the
  Chinas panda, which eats the leaves of certain
  bamboo trees. If the bamboo is destroyed the
  panda will vanish.

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TRAITS OF VULNERABLE SPECIES

• Low Biotic Potential
• Some animal species are extremely vulnerable to
  environmental stress such as storms, drought and
  disease, because of their low biotic potential.
  The female polar bear for example breeds only
  once every three years and then gives birth to
  only two cubs. The female California condor lays
  only a single egg every other year. The problem
  is further complicated by the fact that Condors
  require 6 to 7 years to reach reproductive age
  (Owen and Charias, 1985).
• As earlier stated the African elephant have a
  gestation period of 2 years and requires 14 16
  years to reach reproductive age (Shortridge,
  1934). So also the African rhinoceros, which
  have a gestation period of about 15 months and
  requires long period to reach reproductive age
  (Petrides, 1965 and Walker, 1978).
• Non Adaptive Behaviour
• Some animal species posses a characteristic
  trait, which makes them an easy target for
  hunter. The endangered drills (Mandrillus
  leucophaeus) found in some part of Nigeria and
  Cameroon has certain feeding and other
  behavioural traits which makes them an easy
  target for hunters. The Drills unique food,
  foraging technique of turning up the forest floor
  and stripping the lowmid level vegetation,
  provides hunters with signs of track of the drill
  (Gadsby, 1990 Schafer et al., 1990 Hearn and
  Berghaier, 1996).

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FIRE ECOLOGY

• This deals with bush burning which occurs
  worldwide. It affects
• the life of plants, animal and their habitats
• Causes of Fire
• Fire in the savannah is caused by natural
  phenomena such as
• lightening, volcanic eruption, sparks from rock
  boulder andman.
• It should be noted that even though effects of
  fires caused by
• lightning, volcanic eruptions and sparks from
  rocks may be
• significant in natural ecosystems, they are
  relative milder in their
• destructive effects and spread than the man
  caused fires. Man
• causes fire deliberately or accidentally.

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Types of Fire

• There are three main types of fires considering
  the portion of
• the vegetation that is consumed by the fire
  Ground fires,
• Surface fires and Crown fires.
• 1. Ground fires Ground fires are usually
  flameless and can penetrate to the Subterranean.
  They are mostly common in places where the soil
  is laid with thick layer of leaf litters, dry
  twigs, branches and organic matter
• 2. Surface fires Surface fires feature above the
  round surface and their flames usually consume
  the litter, herbs and shrubs. They also scorch
  the bases of any tree along their route.
• 3. Crown fires Crown fires are fires that burn
  on the crown of trees and shrubs.

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Reasons Of Burning

• 1. Pre-historic men uses fire for warfare and
  roasting meat
• 2. For the cultivation of land preparation,
  settlement and Urbanization
• 3. Fire smoke is used by hunters to drive away
  bees for honey collection
• 4. To drive out wild animals during hunting
• 5. For religious and social festivals prior to
  rain season
• 6. Cattle rearers use fire to keep away tse-tse
  fly and destroy the vectors

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IMPACT OF BUSH BURNING IN THE SAVANNAH

• Bush burning has several advantage and
  disadvantages
• Advantages of Bush Burning in the Savannah
• 1. Early burning reduces the danger of accidental
  fire, therefore it protect game reserve, Natural
  park and forest reserves
• 2. Burning improve visibility for game view
• 3. Burning increase the nutritive value of fresh
  grass. It improves herbage, higher herbage is
  obtain after burning
• 4. Burning eliminates undesirable plant
• 5. Fire facilitate the movement of animals, man
  and fire fighting Equipments
• 6. Fire is use in pest control e.g tse-tse fly
  and tick which transmit human diseases

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Disadvantage of Bush Burning

• 1. Burning injure range plants by removing top
  shoot.
• 2. It causes the deterioration of vegetation and
  destroy the ecosystem or modify them
• 3. Burning lead to lost of organic Nitrogen,
  carbonaxious materials and organic matter i.e.
  there is decrease in the fertility of the soil
  leading to decrease in output
• 4. Uncontrolled burning destroy mulching, thereby
  reduces effective rainfall through increase run
  off and decrease percolation.
• 5. Burning removes vegetation leading to drying
  off of perennial streams and accelerate drought

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Effects of Fire on Environmental/Ecological
Variables and Processes

• Fire can affect the following environmental
  variables either directly or indirectly
• Soil Fire can affect the soil in the following
  ways
• 1. Affects numbers and rate of activity of soil
  organism.
• 2. Removing or changing rates of soils organic
  matter formation and accumulation
• 3. Affecting surface compactness
• 4. Affecting soil water retention properties.
• 5. Affecting amounts and availability of
  essential nutrients
• Removing soil surface horizons through surface
  run-off and sheet erosion.
• Water Fire can affect the water in the following
  ways
• 1. Changing rates of transpiration and
  evaporation
• 2. Changing rates of permeability and subsurface
  flow/ run-off
• Affecting amount and rate of sedimentation
• 4. Changing stream and river structure, through
  bank and surrounding vegetation
• destruction.

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Effects of Fire on Environmental/Ecological
Variables and Processes

• Vegetation Both directly and directly through
  the habitat effects mentioned above e.g.
• 1. Changing direction and speed of vegetation
  succession
• 2. Affect plant biomass, structure and shape
• 3. Affect plant phenology
• Affect plant quality in terms of nutrient content
  and availability
• Animal Fire can affect the animal in the
  following ways
• 1. Changing the shape or amount of cover used by
  the animal
• 2. Changes in animal food, plant palatability and
  availability.
• 3. Indirectly altering water availability
• 4. Causing death or injury to young animals and
  destroys nests and eggs of animal

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General Guideline on the Use of Fire as a
Management Tool in Protected Areas

• Do not burn in periods of extreme drought
• Do not burn in very windy conditions when fire
  can get out of hand of spread to unscheduled
  habitat
• Ensure wildlife will not be trapped by fires
• Burn small areas at a time- do not start longer
  fire lines than you can control
• Cut, rather than burn, where feasible
• Know the fire ecology and fire history of the
  area and monitor and record all burns

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SOIL EROSION PROBLEM

• Soil erosion is the systematic removal of soil
  particles
• from the earth surface. It is the major
  environmental
• degradation occurring mostly when the soil is
  exposed.
• 5 major types that has been identify in Nigeria
• 1. Wind Erosion
• 2. Coastal Erosion
• 3. Riverine Erosion
• 4. Sheet Erosion
• 5. Gully Erosion

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EFFECTS OF EROSION

• 1. It renders farmland barren. Imo State, Abia,
  Enugu, Cross river.
• 2. It can result in desertification
• 3. Siltation of water courses and breeding site
  of aquatic animals
• 4. It causes overall reduction in water quality
  of creeks, river and coastal areas
• 5. It removes top soil that is rich in nutrient
  and organic matter

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CONSERVATION TECHNIQUE FOR CRITICAL ECOSYSTEM

• CONSERVATION TECHNIQUE FOR CRITICAL ECOSYSTEM for
  example Wetland,
• hilly land, grazing area and marginal lands
• 1. Wetland e.g Hadejia Nguru. Wet land have
  marshy soil with permanent or seasonal water, its
  conservation is essential for survival of plants
  and animals including man.
• USES OF WET LAND
• 1. In Alluvia soil - Fadama is very fertile to
  support Agric through the rain fed cultivation
  and impacted farming Crops cultivated are Rice,
  beans, millet, maize and groundnut
• 2. The large area of the surface water and water
  flowing in rivers channels recharge the ground
  water system or else bore-holes in adjacent 150
  villages will dry up
• 3. The surface water support fishing for local
  consumption and sales
• 4. The forest near the wet land support fuel
  wood, plant and vegetative

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USES OF WATER BIRDS AND WETLANDS

• 1. Serve as ecological indicator, wherever they
  are found in wet land area show that the water is
  healthy for man
• 2. The bird dropping enrich the water by
  supplying necessary nutrient use by aquatic plant
  to flourish
• 3. Some of them e.g cattle egret and heron eat
  finger lings to reduce over stocking of fish
• 4. Other Birds feed on Insect which may damage
  crop therefore serve as pest control
• 5. This migrant bird improve international
  co-operation between nation,

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Problems of Wetland

• 1. Over-razing by domestic livestock
• 2. Over-fishing, some even use mosquito net for
  fishing
• 3. Tree felling use of tractor to clear land for
  cultivation
• 4. The exposed water will dry-up
• 5. Dry-up of wetland during draught

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Conservation Technique for Wet Land

• 1. Vegetative along water courses must not be cut
  down, this is to conserve and stabilise water
  generation
• 2. Over-grazing must be avoided
• 3. Stop the use of obnoxious chemicals for
  killing fish
• 4. Avoid wild fire or uncontrolled bush burning

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Steps in the Process of Developing a Management
Plan

• 1 Form the planning team include a variety of
  people with expertise in planning, ecology,
  sociology, economics and various other resource
  sciences. Also include the protected area
  authorities and the people who manage the park,
  as well as those who will be affected by the
  plan. The team should consult with scientists,
  experts on tourism, educators, concessionaires
  and people living in and around the protected
  area.
• 2 State the objectives of the area analyse the
  original reasons for creating the protected area
  and, if necessary, update the objectives as a
  function of modern conditions.
• 3 Gather basic background information this
  includes legislation, data on biophysical
• features, cultural resources and socio-economic
  data. (These and the next points will be expanded
  below in the section on information required for
  the management plan).
• 4 Field inventory consult and update existing
  data, gather new information and develop the
  information base to make informed management
  decisions.
• Assess constraints limitations of an
  environmental, economic, political,
  administrative, or legal, nature should be
  recognized and analyzed, with an emphasis on
  realism.

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CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREA

• CATEGORY 1 STRICT NATURE RESERVES / WILDERNESS
  AREAS
• Protected areas managed mainly for science or
  wilderness protection. These two types of
• protected area are treated as sub-categories
•  
• Category 1a Strict Nature Reserves
• Areas of land and / or sea possessing some
  outstanding or representative ecosystems,
• geological or physiological features and / or
  species, available primarily for scientific
  research and / or environmental monitoring.

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CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREA (contd)

•  
• Category 1b Wilderness areas
• These are protected areas managed mainly for
  wilderness protection. They should include a
  large area of unmodified or slightly modified
  land, and / or sea, retaining their natural
  character and influence, without permanent or
  significant habitation and should be protected
  and managed so as to preserve their natural
  condition.

42
CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREA (contd)

• CATEGORY II NATIONAL PARKS
• Protected areas managed mainly for ecosystem
  protection and recreation. These are natural
  areas of land and / or sea, designated to
• a) protect the ecological integrity of one or
  more ecosystems for present and future
• generations
• b) exclude exploitation or occupation likely to
  degrade the area and
• c) provide a foundation for spiritual,
  scientific, education, recreational and visitor
  uses,
• all of which must be environmentally and
  culturally compatible.

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CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREA (contd)

• CATEGORY III NATURAL MONUMENTS
• Protected areas managed mainly for conservation
  of specific natural features. These are
• areas containing one, or more, specific natural
  or natural / cultural features which are of
• outstanding or unique value because of their
  inherent rarity, representative or aesthetic
  qualities,or cultural significance.
• CATEGORY IV HABITAT / SPECIES MANAGEMENT AREAS
• Areas of land and / or sea where active
  management interventions are undertaken so as to
• ensure the maintenance of habitats and / or to
  meet the requirements of specific species.

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CATEGORIES OF PROTECTED AREA (contd)

• CATEGORY V PROTECTED LANDSCAPES / SEASCAPES
• Protected areas managed mainly for landscape /
  seascape conservation and recreation. They
  consist of areas of land, sometimes with coast
  and sea as appropriate, where the interaction of
  people and nature over time has produced a
  landscape of distinct character with significant
  aesthetic, ecological and / or cultural value,
  and often with high biological diversity.
  Safeguarding the integrity of this traditional
  interaction is vital to the protection,
  maintenance and evolution of such an area.
• CATEGORY VI MANAGED RESOURCE PROTECTED AREAS
• Protected areas managed mainly for the
  sustainable use of natural ecosystems. They are
• areas containing predominantly unmodified natural
  systems, managed to ensure long term protection
  and maintenance of biological diversity, while
  providing at the same time a sustainable flow of
  natural products and services to meet community
  needs.

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Development of Protected Area Buffer Zones

• Definition of Buffer zone
• Buffer zone can be defined as an area adjacent to
  protected areas, on which land use is partially
  restricted to give an added layer of protection
  to the protected area itself while providing
  valued benefits to neighbouring rural
  communities. Buffer zones may serve two main
  functions

46
FUNCTION OF BUFFER ZONE

• Extension Buffering, which in effect extends the
  area of those habitats contained within the
  protected area into the buffer zone, thus
  allowing larger total breeding populations of
  plants and animal species than could survive
  within the reserve alone. Example of such
  buffering can include selectively logged
  production forests, hunting areas, natural
  forests used by villagers for fire-wood
  collection, unused wilderness and grazing
  pastures.

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FUNCTION OF BUFFER ZONE

• Socio-Buffering, where wildlife use of the buffer
  zone is of secondary importance and management is
  aimed primarily at providing products of use or
  value (cash crops) to local people but such land
  use should not conflict with the objective of the
  protected area itself. This generally involves
  planting species that are unattractive as
  habitats for local wildlife or allowing a
  controlled harvest of wildlife.

48
Buffer Zone Requirements and Restrictions

• In determining the types and extent of buffer
  zones needed, the following factors should be
  considered
• Needs of threatened wildlife species for use of
  additional habitat outside the reserve
  boundaries. Knowledge of the size and habits of
  the species will give some indication of the
  extent of an adequate buffer zone.
• The need for the buffer zone to serve other
  protective functions, such as soil and water
  conservation or fire-break protection.
• The need to contain wildlife species likely to
  move out of the reserve.
• The reasonable needs of local people for land,
  forest products, grazing areas or meat.
• The amount of land available for use, whether it
  is currently under natural or other vegetation,
  and whether it is vacant or being used.
• The suitability of possible buffer crops for the
  particular land type and climatic conditions and
  the interests of local wildlife. For instance,
  bananas or oil palms should not be planted if the
  buffer zone is next to an elephant reserve, and
  maize would be unsuitable near macaques or
  baboons.

49
Types of Buffer Zones

• The main types of buffer zone for protected areas
  include
• 1. Traditional Use Zones inside Protected Areas
  There are situations when no suitable land exists
  outside reserves for buffer zone establishment
  and it is preferable to permit collection of
  certain natural products from some part of the
  reserve or at certain times rather than have to
  exercise valuable lands as buffers.

50
Types of Buffer Zones

• 2. Forest Buffers. These include fuel-wood or
  timber forests outside protected area boundaries
  but on public land. These may be natural forests,
  enriched secondary forest or even plantations
  where the emphasis is on maximizing sustained
  yield for local village use, while maintaining
  good soil and water protection. The encouragement
  of plantation forests in buffer zones is probably
  the single most effective resource management
  strategy for ensuring long-term integrity of
  protected areas themselves
• 3. Economic Buffers. Sometimes economic buffering
  is needed to reduce the needs of villagers to
  take resources from protected areas. This could
  take the form of special agricultural, social or
  communication assistance in lieu of, or as well
  as provision of productive buffer lands. Other
  examples include cash tree plantations, and
  wildlife cropping outside protected area
  boundaries, where the emphasis is on maximizing
  cash returns to benefit villagers.

51
Types of Buffer Zones

• 4. Physical Buffers. Where no land is available
  for buffer zone development the boundary itself
  must serve as a buffer and there is sometimes a
  need for physical barriers such as fences,
  ditches, canals, walls or spiny hedges. These
  help discourage wildlife from leaving the reserve
  and deter people and domestic stock from
  entering. In some cases all that my be required
  is a clearly visible boundary such as a cut trace
  line or single row or thin belt of distinctive
  tree (bright leaves or flowers) as a living
  boundary.

52
Selection of Crop for Buffer Zones

• The merits of various plantation types as buffer
  zones and their attraction for
• wildlife have been identified below
• 1. Natural forest, disturbed forest and secondary
  forest provide additional habitat for wildlife
  species and excellent protection of soil.
• 2. Fast growing firewood plantations (various
  species are of some use to wildlife species and
  provide good soil protection. This is most
  suitable in areas where land is limited and where
  the demand for firewood is pressing. Coppiceable
  species should be selected.
• 3. Timber plantations (various species) give good
  to excellent soil protection i.e. reforesting
  steep slopes.
• 4. Mixed plantations providing firewood, poles
  and timber are of some use to use to wildlife and
  give good protection.
• 5. Fruit plantations protect the soil and provide
  cash and food, but problems may arise with
  certain wild species e.g. monkeys or bats raiding
  the crops.
• 6. Cinnamon provides cash and fire wood but is of
  no use to wildlife soil protection is good
  although the tree have to be cut every few years.