APA Style

1
APA Style

• Research Methods
• RCS 6740/PHC 6700
• January 24, 2006

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Why Use APA Style?

• Allows readers to cross-reference your sources
  easily
• Provides consistent format within a discipline
• Gives you credibility as a writer
• Protects you from plagiarism

3
Cross-Referencing Your Sources

• Cross-referencing allows readers to locate the
  publication information of source material. This
  is of great value for researchers who may want to
  locate your sources for their own research
  projects.
• Because one purpose of listing references is to
  enable readers to retrieve and use the sources,
  reference data must be correct and complete.
  (APA, 2001, p. 216).

4
Using a Consistent Format

• Using a consistent format helps your reader
  understand your arguments and the sources theyre
  built on.
• It also helps you keep track of your sources as
  you build arguments.
• 32 APA primary journals as many as 1000 more in
  social sciences and psychology use APA as their
  style guide.

5
Establishing Credibility

• The proper use of APA style shows the credibility
  of writers such writers show accountability to
  their source material.
• Because authors are responsible for all
  information in their reference lists. Accurately
  prepared references help establish your
  credibility as a careful researcher (APA, 2001,
  p. 216).

6
Avoiding Plagiarism

• Academic honesty and integrity!
• Proper citation of your sources in APA style can
  help you avoid plagiarism, which is a serious
  offense. It may result in anything from failure
  of the assignment to expulsion from school.
• You are academically dishonest if
• Someone writes your paper for you
• You purchase a paper
• You copy a paper from online
• You fail to cite your sources
• Your present someone elses ideas as your own

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Quick Background of the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association

• 1928 Meeting of editors of anthropological and
  psychological journals.
• February 1929 7 page article in Psychological
  Bulletin.
• Just recommended a standard procedure did not
  dictate the style to authors.
• 1952 1st edition 60 page supplement to
  Psychological Bulletin.
• 1974 2nd edition 136 pages
• 2001 5th edition - 439 pages

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APA Style

• Content Organization of a Manuscript
• Expressing Ideas Reducing Bias in Language
• Editorial Style
• Reference List

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Content Organization

• Parts of a Manuscript
• Title Page
• Abstract
• Introduction
• Method
• Results
• Discussion
• Multiple Experiments
• References
• Appendix
• Author Note

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Title Page

• Title (centered, upper ½ of page, ds)
• Authors name (1 ds below title)
• Institutional affiliation or course
  identification (ds below authors name)
• Manuscript page header (upper right corner, 1st 2
  or 3 words of title, 5 spaces, then page )
• Running head

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Disability Attitudes 1
Running head DISABILITY ATTITUDES IMPLICIT
ASSOCIATION TEST
The Development and Psychometric Validation
of the Disability Attitudes Implicit Association
Test
Steven R. Pruett University of Florida
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Running Head

• Abbreviated title
• Maximum 50 characters including letters,
  punctuation, and spaces
• Left-justified below manuscript page header
• ExampleRunning head GENERATION X

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Abstract

• Brief comprehensive summary
• 75-120 words
• Concise
• Self-contained
• Non-evaluative
• Coherent
• Readable

Note Manual has specific guidelines for
empirical studies, reviews and theoretical
pieces, methodological works, and case studies.
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Example

• Abstract
• Objectives Develop and validate the Disability
  Attitude Implicit Association Test (DA-IAT).
  Participants Two hundred twenty three
  rehabilitation counseling students. Outcome
  Measures DA-IAT, Attitude Toward Disabled
  Persons Scale (ATDP), Marlowe-Crowne Social
  Desirability Scale, Collett-Lester Fear of Death
  Scale, Internal and External Motivation to
  Respond without Prejudice Toward People with
  Disabilities Scales, Contact with Disabled
  Persons Scale, and Demographics. Results
  DA-IAT congruent associations (disabilitynegative
  /non-disabledpositive) occurred more frequently
  than incongruent associations (disabilitypositive
  /non-disablednegative). DA-IAT had no
  relationship with ATDP, an explicit attitude
  measure. Demographics did not predict DA-IAT
  scores. Contact with Disabled Persons Scale was
  the dominant predictor for the DA-IAT.
  Conclusions The DA-IAT has potential of
  becoming a useful measure of implicit group
  disability attitudes based on experience versus
  belief.
• Abstract117 words
• Keywords Attitudes Measurement, Disabled
  (Attitude Towards), Psychosocial Factors,
  Demographics, Student Attitudes

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First Page of Text

• Includes manuscript page header
• Full title is centered on the top line of the
  page
• DS, only, between title and first line of text

Note. Double space, only, throughout the entire
document.
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Headings

• The levels of heading are established by format
  or appearance
• The hierarchy of sections help orient the reader
  to the structure of the manuscript they
  function as an outline
• Topics of equal importance have the same level of
  heading throughout the manuscript.
• Start each section with the highest level of
  heading, even if one section may have fewer
  levels of subheading than another section

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Headings - Continued

• CENTERED UPPERCASE HEADING
• (Level 5)
•  Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
• (Level 1)
•  Centered, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase
  Heading
• (Level 2)
• Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase
  Side Heading
• (Level 3)
• Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph
  heading ending
• with a period.
• (Level 4)

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One Level Heading

• Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
• (Level 1)
• Engagement
• Assessment
• Planning
• Implementation
• Evaluation

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Two levels (use level 1 3)

• Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
• (Level 1)
• Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase
  Side Heading
• (Level 3)
•  
• Engagement
• Techniques
• Orientation of Client

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Three levels (Use level 1, 3 and 4)

• Centered Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
• (Level 1)
• Flush Left, Italicized, Uppercase and Lowercase
  Side Heading
• (Level 3)
•   Indented, italicized, lowercase paragraph
  heading ending with a period. (Level 4)
• Assessment
• Development
• Early childhood.
• Adolescent.

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Handling Quotes in Your Text

• If directly quoted from another authors work
  should be reproduced word for word
• Short quotations (fewer than 40 words) are
  incorporated into the text, enclosed with double
  quotation marks.
• Must be accompanied by a reference citation with
  a page number

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Example of a Short Quotation

• Matkin (1985) stated the compensation principle
  and accident prevention form an intertwined
  relationship whereby one enhances the other (p.
  29).
• At end of sentence close quoted passage with
  quotation marks, cite the source in parentheses
  after marks, and end with the period or other
  punctuation outside the final parenthesis.

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Example of Mid-Sentence Quote

• He found Assessment or decision-making
  interviews are generally more focused (Zastrow,
  1998, p. 86) than other types of interview
  formats.
• In midsentence - End the passage with quotation
  marks, cite source in parentheses immediately
  after the quotation marks, and continue the
  sentence.
• Use no other punctuation unless meaning of
  sentence requires it.

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Example of Long Quote

• Wang, Thomas, Chan, and Cheing (2003) stated the
  following
• Conjoint analysis has the potential to
  augment the study of attitudes toward
  disabilities in rehabilitation psychology
  research. Specifically, as an indirect
  measurement, conjoint analysis is less prone to
  social desirability effects. The trade-off
  method used in conjoint analysis to study
  peoples attitudes toward disability closely
  approximates human decision making in real life.
  Hence both conjoint measurements and conjoint
  analysis could increase the ability of
  rehabilitation psychology researchers to
  understand factors contributing to the formation
  of attitudes/preferences in multiple social
  contexts. (p. 200-201)
• At end of block quote Cite the quoted source in
  parentheses after the final punctuation mark
• Do not single space long quotes. Indent 5-7
  spaces from the left margin without the usual
  paragraph indent.

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Numbers

• General rule is to use figures to express numbers
  10 and above
•   The client is 25 years old
• Mr. Roberts has had 12 arrests
•  
•  
• Use words to express numbers below 10
•   Nora Edwards has had three previous marriages.

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Exceptions

• Always as numerals Dates, Ages, Exact sums of
  money, scores and points on a scale, numbers and
  precise measurements
• Each item on the Beck Depression Index is scored
  on a 5-point scale
• The client receives 8 per completed hour.
• Always as words Any number that begins a
  sentence, common fractions
• Twelve participants were involved in the focus
  groups 

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Parenthetical (Within-Text) Citations

• Authors(s) last name
• Year of publication
• Page number (if quoting)
• Example
• (Chan, 2000, p. 17)

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Parenthetical CitationsMultiple Authors

• 2 authors cite both names separated by
  Example (Rubin Roessler,
  2002, p. 127)
• 3-5 authors cite all authors first time after
  first time, use et al. Example
  (Chan et al., 2000)
• 6 or more authors cite first authors name and
  et al.Example (Rosenthal et
  al., 1992)

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Parenthetical Citations Multiple Citations

• Multiple sources from same author chronological
  order, separated by comma.
• Example (Shaw, 1998, 1999, in press)
• Within same year Example (Corrigan,
  1998a, 1998b, 1999, in press)

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Parenthetical Citations Multiple Citations
Continued

• Multiple sources separated by semicolon,
  alphabetical order Example (Chan, 1998
  Pruett, 2001 Thomas, 1992)

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Handling Parenthetical Citations

• If the source has no known author, then use an
  abbreviated version of the title
• Full Title California Cigarette Tax Deters
  Smokers
• Citation (California, 1999)

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Handling Parenthetical Citations

• A reference to a personal communication
• Source email message from Hanoch Livneh
• Citation (H. Livneh, personal communication,
  November 22, 2002)
• A general reference to a web siteSource
  University of Florida
• Citation (http//www.ufl.edu)

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Reference Citations in Text

• If author(s) name is part of narrative, cite only
  year of publication in parentheses
•  
• Hess, Marwitz and Kreutzer (2003) report
  treatment planning following a spinal cord injury
  should include methods for identifying cognitive
  deficits.
• On rare occasions you may have the year and
  author with no parentheses.
• In 2000 Walker compared reaction times

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Keys to Parenthetical Citations

• Readability
• Keep references brief
• Give only information needed to identify the
  source on your reference page
• Do not repeat unnecessary information

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Handling Quotes in Your Text

• There are many different combinations and
  variations within APA citation format.
• If you run into something unusual, look it up!

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Tables and Figures

• Tables are used for efficient presentation of a
  large amount of data in a small amount of space.
  
• Figures should augment vs. duplicate text, convey
  only essential facts, and be clean and easy to
  read and understand.
• Any type of illustration other than a table is
  called a figure.
• Graphs (scatter, line, bar, pictorial or
  circle/pie)
• Charts
• Dot maps
• Drawings
• Photographs
• Tables and Figures should be referred to in the
  text.
• There are sample tables and figures in the APA
  text.
• Next couple of slides
• Sample ANOVA table from p. 162 of APA Manual
• Sample Regression table from Pruett and Chan (in
  press)

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• Table X
• Analysis of Variance for Classical
  Conditioning
• Source df F ? p
• Between subjects
• Anxiety (A) 2 0.76 .22 .48
• Shock (S) 1 0.01 .02 .92
• A X S 2 0.18 .11 .84
• S within-group error 30 (16.48)
• Within subjects
• Blocks (B) 4 3.27 .31 .01
• B X A 8 0.93 .24 .49
• B X S 4 2.64 .28 .04
• B X A X S 8 0.58 .19 .79
• B X S within group error 120 (1.31)

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• Table X
• Summary of Hierarchical Regression Analysis for
  Psychosocial Variables Predicting ATDP - A scores
  (N 223)
• Variable B SE B ß
• Step 1
• MCSDS Short Form 0.17 0.43 0.03
• Step 2
• MCSDS Short Form -0.04 0.44 -0.01
• Fear of Death -0.01 0.05 -0.07
• IMS 0.14 0.27 0.04
• EMS -0.59 0.19 -0.23
• CDPS 0.12 0.09 0.10
• Note. Step 1 R2 .001 (p ns), adjusted R2
  -.004 Step 2 ?R2 .089 (p lt .01), adjusted R2
  .069. MCSDS Marlowe-Crowne Social
  Desirability Scale IMS Internal Motivation to
  Respond without Prejudice toward People with
  Disabilities scale EMS External Motivation to
  Respond without Prejudice toward People with
  Disabilities scale CDPS Contact with Disabled
  Persons Scale. p lt .01.

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Reference List General Guidelines

• On a separate page
• References (the title) is centered on top line
• Alphabetical list of works cited
• If same author cited more than once,
  chronologically listed
• Double spaced
• Hanging indent
• Titles of works and volume number in italics

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Reference List Journal Article

• Garske, G. G. (2000). The significance of
  rehabilitation counselor job satisfaction.
  Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling,
  31(3), 10-13.
• Shaw, L. R., Tarvydas, V. M. (2001). The use of
  professional disclosure in rehabilitation
  counseling. Rehabilitation Counseling
  Bulletin, 45, 40-47.
• Miller, L. J., Donders, J. (in press).
  Prediction of educational outcome after
  pediatric traumatic brain injury.
  Rehabilitation Psychology.

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Reference List Book

• Smart, J. (2001). Disability, Society, and the
  Individual. Gaithersburg, MD Aspen.
• Parker, R. M., Szymanski, E. M. (Eds.). (1998).
  Rehabilitation Counseling Basics and
  Beyond. Austin, TX PRO-ED.
• American Psychiatric Association. (1994).
  Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental
  disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC Author.

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Reference List Book Chapter

• Jaet, D. N., McMahon, B.T. (1999).
  Implications of disability legislation for case
  managers. In F. Chan M. J. Leahy (Eds.),
  Health Care and Disability Case Management (pp.
  213 238). Lake Zurich, IL Vocational
  Consultants Press.

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Reference List Electronic Media

• Internet articles based on a print source (exact
  replicate usually a pdf file)
• Smith, S., Jones, T. (2001). The impact of
  authoritative supervisors on job retention
  Electronic version. Journal of Applied
  Rehabilitation Counseling, 12(2), 110-112.
• Internet articles that are not exactly as the
  printed article (i.e., htlm, doc, or txt files)
• Smith, S., Jones, T. (2001). The impact of
  authoritative supervisors on job retention.
  Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling,
  12(2), 110-112. Retrieved October 13, 2001, from
  http//jarc.org/articles

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Reference List Electronic Media

• Articles in an Internet only journal
• James, T. (2001, March 7). Cultivating positive
  emotions to optimize health and well-being.
  Prevention Treatment, 3, Article 01a.
  Retrieved November 20, 2000, from
  http//journals.apa.org/articles
• Stand alone document, no author identified, no
  date.
• Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality
  (n.d.). Retrieved August 8, 2000, from
  http//www.ahrq.gov

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APA Writing Style Rules Abbreviations

• Avoid abbreviations except for long familiar
  terms (MMPI).
• Explain what the abbreviation means at the first
  occurrence American Psychological Association
  (APA).
• If an abbreviation is commonly used as a word, it
  does not require explanation (IQ, LSD, RAM).
• Use two-letter postal codes for U.S. state names.

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Language Exerts a Powerful Influence
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Avoiding Biased and Pejorative Language

• Be more specific, not less
• Use age ranges rather than broad categories
• Use the phrase Men and women rather than
  generic mankind
• Avoid the generic he
• Specific ethnic or racial labeling
• Mention differences only when relevant

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Be Sensitive to Labels

• Use person-first language when describing and
  individual or group of people with a disability.
• Example people over the age of 65, people with
  learning disabilities

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Standards of Comparison

• Be aware of hidden standards that compare the
  study group to an invisible (standard)
  group.Example culturally deprived (by what
  standard?)
• Unparallel nouns
• Example man and wife - Instead husband and
  wife

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Acknowledge Participation

• Replace the impersonal term subjects with-
  participants
• - individuals
• - college students
• - children

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Where Do I Find APA Style and Format?

• Publication Manual of the American Psychological
  Association, 5th ed.
• http//www.apastyle.org
• Some other good links http//www.docstyles.com/a
  pacrib.htm
• http//www.vanguard.edu/faculty/ddegelman/amoebaw
  eb/index.aspx?doc_id2415

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Software for APA Style

• APA Style Helper 5 (available at APAStyle.org)
• Walks you through a paper as you create it
• Helps format references, headings etc
• Includes a reference builder
• Works with most word processors
• From APA costs 40
• APAStyle.info (not an APA website) MS Word
  Template for APA format
• Headings and Format in APA style (no help with
  references)
• Free, only good with Microsoft Word.
• http//www.apastyle.info/template.shtml

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Software for APA Style

• Other Word Templates for purchase
• EazyPaper http//www.eazypaper.com/
• Reference point software http//www.refpt.net/
• Word referencing macros
• Southern Ocean Software http//www.southernoceans
  oftware.com/apamacros/index.html

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Software for APA Style

• Citation Software
• EndNote 9.0 (endnote.com)
• ProCite 5.0 (procite.com)
• Software Reference Manager 11.01 (refman.com)
• Biblioscape 6.0 (biblioscape.com)
• All have versions for Mac (OS X) as well as
  Windows (98 XP) support a variety of word
  processors (except Biblioscape Windows only)
• Cost 110 200 (Education prices)

55
A Word (or two) on Purchases

• NOTE I am not recommending you purchase ANY of
  these software products. I do not use any of
  them and do not know how well they work. The
  purpose of this list is to let you know what is
  out there, but you should practice the maxim let
  the buyer beware.
• I would recommend you purchase the APA
  Publication Manual (5th ed.).