Psychology 245 Leadership Chapter 13 What is Leadership? A

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Psychology 245

• Leadership
• Chapter 13

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What is Leadership?

• A social process through which an individual
  intentionally exerts influence over others to
  structure their behavior and relationships.
• Effective leadership depends on the outcomes of
  the work group or those being led. Results, short
  and long-term
• Core of leadership is influence over others which
  leads us to the issues of POWER.

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Power

• A resource that provides the potential to
  influence the attitudes and behaviors of others.
• Leaders can emerge at different levels for
  different reasons
• French and Ravens Model -- 5 Bases
• 1. Legitimate
• Bestowed on someone by the organization,
  analogous to authority.
• 2. Reward (parents)
• Control rewards or outcomes of others.

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Power

• 3. Coercive (parents, a teacher)
• Control over punishments and used to get people
  to do what one wants.
• 4. Expert (computer guy)
• Affiliated with special knowledge or proficiency.
• 5. Referent (Braveheart)
• Gained by the respect of others.
• Power is not always a good thing.
• Sometimes it can corrupt decision making or
  follower perceptions of a leaders intent.
• Referent and expert power not limited to the top
  of the organization.

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Theories of leadership
covered today
came about 30s and 40s

• Universalist theories
• Great Man/Woman theory
• Trait theory
• Behavioral/Style theories
• Ohio State leadership studies
• University of Michigan leadership studies

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More leadership theories
covered tomorrow

• Contingency theories
• Fiedlers contingency theory
• Houses path-goal model
• Leader-member exchange model
• Vroom and Yettons decision-making model
• New Age theories
• Charismatic leadership
• Transactional/Transformational leadership

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Great Man/Woman Theory

• Great leaders are born, not made.
• Informal theory arguing that good leaders possess
  certain physical qualities, abilities, and
  personality traits.
• Situation plays no role in leadership.
• If great leaders of the past were alive today,
  they would once again be great leaders.
• Evidence Greatness often runs in families.
• e.g., Kennedys, Gandhis, Religious stuff

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Trait theories

• Trait enduring attribute associated with an
  individuals disposition.
• Trait theories were formalizations (and saner
  versions) of the great man/woman theory.
• Attempt to find clusters of traits associated
  with good leaders.

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• Early theories looked at (not necessarily found)
• physical/physiological traits height,
  appearance, gender, energy level, etc.
• personality traits extroversion, achievement,
  etc.
• cognitive ability traits intelligence
• Results were weak and inconclusive.

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Now a Resurgence of trait theories

• Recent resurgence of interest in trait theories
• Consensus High Intelligence, high
  Conscientiousness and (maybe) high Extroversion
  are related to leader success.
• Some evidence High Need for Power and low Need
  for Affiliation.
• McClellands Achievement Motivation Theory
  (remember???)

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• One controversial study leader succes related to
  masculine personality.
• Other research fails to support this
• Consensus lack of women in mgmt is best
  explained by situation barriers and cultural
  norms
• not by dispositional deficiencies
• Future of trait theories
• renewed interest in per se

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Behavioral theories

• Leadership Style
• These theories emphasized leader behavior.
• Common methodology Factor Analysis of behaviors
  from studies of leaders on the job. Find out
  important factors.
• Basically, job analysis (to varying degrees of
  formality)
• What do successful leaders actually do to make
  them successful?
• Found two unrelated factors for successful
  leaders

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Ohio State/Michigan studies

• Initiating Structure (Ohio State studies) /
  Task-oriented Behaviors (Michigan studies)
• Leader behaviors focused on the work task.
• Specifically, behaviors that define, organize and
  structure the work situation.
• letting group members know what is expected of
  them
• telling people what to do
• creating procedures
• Consideration (Ohio State studies) /
  Relationship-oriented Behaviors (Michigan
  studies)
• Leader behaviors focused on maintaining
  interpersonal relationships on the job.
• Behaviors that show a concern for the feeling,
  attitudes, and needs of followers.
• willing to make changes
• treat members as equals
• nice vs being directive
• Situational (army drill instructor mean-gtnice)
• Does this contradict the finding that successful
  leaders have a low Need for Affiliation???

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The marketing of leadership theory

• Leadership Grid
• An application of the findings from behavioral
  theories emphasizes that effective leaders are
  both task and relationship oriented.
• There is only one best leadership style (the 9,9
  leader).
• The Grid is criticized for being a universalist
  approach.
• Effective leadership depends on how a leaders
  style adapts to a particular work situation.

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Concern for Production/Results
1,9   Country Club Management    
9,9   Team Management    
Concern for People
5,5   Middle of the Road Management    
9, 1   Authority Compliance Management
1,1   Impoverished Management
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Contingency theories of leadership

• The effectiveness of a leadership style is
  contingent (depends) on the situation.
• Implication certain leader behaviors will be
  effective in some situations but not in others.
• Fiedlers model of leadership
• Effective leadership depends on the match
  between a leaders style and the extent to which
  the work situation affords control and influence
  to the leader.
• Types of leaders
• Task-oriented and relationship-oriented.
• Where did he get this classification?

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Fiedlers Contingency Model

• But theres a difference.
• Behavioral theories (Ohio State Michigan)
• Successful leaders are high on both task-oriented
  and relationship-oriented behaviors.
• Fiedlers theory
• Leaders can be either task-oriented or
  relationship-oriented (but not both).
• Problem Why cant a leader be high on both?
• Some situations are conducive to success for
  task-oriented leaders.
• Other situations are conducive to success for
  relationship-oriented behaviors.

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LPC scale

• Least Preferred Coworker scale
• A leaders description of the person with whom he
  has the greatest difficulty working reflects his
  leadership style.
• leader rates person with whom s/he has had most
  difficulty in getting the job done
• Low values (strict rating) ? task-oriented leader
• High values (lenient rating) ? relationship-orient
  ed leader
• Problem Middle values ?
• Problem Zero construct validity.

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Matching leadership style and the work situation

• Characteristics of situation
• Described using three dimensions
• Leader-member relations
• Quality of relationship between leader and
  subordinates.
• Extent to which leader is liked, respected and
  trusted.
• Defined as good or poor.
• Task structure
• Assessment of the extent to which the task is
  structured.
• Can group output be easily evaluated?
• Does group have well-defined goals?
• Does group have clear procedures for achieving
  goals?
• Defined as structured or unstructured.

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• Position power
• Extent to which leader has authority over
  subordinates.
• Ability to hire, fire, discipline and reward.
• Defined as strong or weak.

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• Situations conducive to effective leadership
• Task-oriented leaders
• Very Unfavorable situation
• All 3 situational dimensions are negative.
• Leader has nothing to lose.
• Task-oriented directive style might achieve
  things.
• Subordinates might exploit relationship-oriented
  leader.
• Problem Theoretically, it is equally likely
  here that
• subordinates will ignore task-oriented leaders,
  and
• subordinates will respond favorably to
  relationship-oriented leaders.

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• Very Favorable situation
• All 3 situational dimensions are positive.
• Since task is already taken care of,
  task-oriented leaders start focusing on
  relationships (good thing).
• In contrast, relationship-oriented leaders will
  start focusing on the task (bad thing).
• Relationship-oriented leaders
• Are most effective in the Moderate situation
• Not all situational dimensions are positive or
  negative.
• Interpersonal conflicts arise.
• Relationship-oriented leaders can deal with
  conflicts better.

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Houses Path-Goal Theory

• Leaders job is to help subordinates achieve
  their desired goals.
• Assumption The goals held by subordinates are
  good for the organization!
• Leader as facilitator or guide.
• Different types of leadership styles are
  appropriate in different situations.
• Leadership styles directive, achievement-oriente
  d, supportive, and participative.
• See text for more details.

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Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Model

• Effective leadership will depend on the quality
  of interactions between leader and subordinates.
• Leaders interactions with various subordinates
  will not all be of same quality.
• Interactions with some subordinates (in-group)
  will be good.
• These subordinates are more trusted and
  influential.
• Interactions with other subordinates (out-group)
  will not be good.
• Suggested intervention Increase all
  leader-subordinate relationships.

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Vrooms Decision-Making Model

• Motivational/Expectancy backing to it
• Leaders are basically decision-makers.
• Effective leadership match between leaders
  decision-making style and work situation.
• Leader goes through a decision-tree containing
  several Yes/No questions.
• Answers determine which decision style/strategy
  should be adopted.

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Decision-making styles

• Decision styles vary in extent of subordinate
  involvement in decision.
• Distinguish b/w 5 decision-making procedures
• AI Autocratic decision (1) leader decides
  without seeking input from group members. speedy
• AII Autocratic decision (2) leader gathers
  information from members (without explain), then
  makes decision. swift
• CI Consultative decision (1) leader shares
  problem with individual subordinates, gets their
  opinions, then makes his own decision.
• CII Consultative decision (2) leader shares
  problem with the group, gets their opinions, then
  makes decision.
• G Group decision leader shares problem with
  the group, and decision is made when everyone is
  in consensus.

participation
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Decision-making model cont.

• Model is prescriptive
• Prescribes rules for leaders to follow under
  different conditions in order to make the most
  effective decisions.
• Eg if a leader lacks information that
  subordinates have, an autocratic decision is
  ineffective.
• Recommendations of theory
• More participative decision-making generally
  beneficial for high stakes decisions Jury
• need high decision quality
• need high commitment and implementation by
  subordinates.

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on the other hand if u need speed

• Less participative decision-making generally
  beneficial for decisions requiring to be made
  quickly.
• Participation takes timeso, leader should make
  decision himself/herself.
• Evaluation of theory
• Mostly supported by research.
• Might have got some details wrong, but is
  generally on right track.

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Now New Age Theories

• Attempt to recapture the romance of leadership
  (in popular culture).
• Belief that this romantic essence of leadership
  has unfortunately been stripped away by
  dispassionate scientific analysis.
• Types of leaders
• Charismatic leaders Possess exceptional
  qualities of charisma that cause followers to be
  loyal and devoted.
• Transactional leaders Strike a deal with
  followers.
• Transformational leaders Motivate and inspire
  followers to perform beyond expectations.

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Charismatic leadership

• Webers concept of charisma
• An exceptional leader, a crisis situation, the
  leaders vision presenting a solution to the
  crisis, followers who are attracted to the leader
  and vision
• Outcomes of charismatic leadership
• Follower trust in the correctness of leaders
  beliefs
• similarity of follower and leader beliefs
• unquestioning acceptance of leader
• emotional involvement of follower in the mission
• feeling on the part of followers that they will
  accomplish the mission.
• What does this sound a lot like??
• Groupthink - BAD

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Transactional and Transformational Leaders

• Transactional leaders
• Strike a transaction with subordinates.
• Transactional leader provides material rewards
  and security, while subordinates provide energy
  and time at work.
• Transformational leaders
• Change the values, beliefs and attitudes of
  followers.
• Motivate followers to go beyond their
  self-interests for good of the group.
• Mechanisms
• Define the need for change
• Providing new visions
• Mobilizing commitment
• transform the group and the organization.

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Problems with new age theories

• Much overlap between the three types.
• Little discriminant validity.
• Very low scientific rigor in theory development
  and theory testing.
• Charismatic leadership, by reducing in-group
  criticism and increasing unquestioning obedience
  could lead to groupthink.
• Same can be said about transformational
  leadership.

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Gender and Leadership

• By 2008, women will make up 48 of the labor
  force.
• Women have been historically underrepresented in
  corporate management.
• Women have more participative and interpersonally
  oriented styles than men.
• Men and women emerge as leaders in contexts that
  are consistent with their gender roles.

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Leadership Glass Ceiling?
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Gender and Leadership

• Gender congeniality should moderate leadership
  effectiveness.
• Women and men leaders do not differ in overall
  perceptions of effectiveness.
• Men are perceived as more effective in contexts
  congenial to men and women in contexts congenial
  to women.
• Women at a huge disadvantage because leadership
  is masculine typed and to be effective, a woman
  has to be masculine, but thats inconsistent with
  her gender expectation.