Worldwide energy stats

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Worldwide energy stats

• Total energy consumption15 TW (1012) in 2004
  (86.5 from fossil fuels)
• This corresponds to 51020 J/yr
• Worldwide reserves of fossil fuels -40001020 J
  (800 yrs)
• 2.51024 J of uranium reserves
• Renewable energy flux from the sun (radiation,
  wind, waves) 120 PW (1015) or 3.81024 J/yr

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Energy Consumption Breakdown
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EERE funded by DOE 2.3 B

• Biofuels (235 M)
• Batteries (200 M)
• Fuel Cells (68 M)
• Hydrogen (cut from 2010 budget, considered too
  long term)
• Solar cells (320 M)
• Wind (75 M)
• Water/Geothermal (30 M / 50 M)
• Green Buildings (237 M)
• Financing for states, industry and consumers to
  encourage adoption (350 M)
• Nuclear (845 M /191 for Gen IV)) Office of
  Nuclear energy
• Fusion (421 M) Office of Science (4.9 B)

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Potential for solar

• A land mass of about 100x100 miles in the
  Southwest U.S.-less than 0.5 of the U.S.
  mainland land mass, or about 25 of the area
  currently used for the nation's highway/roadway
  system-could provide as much electricity as
  presently consumed in the United States.
• Truly renewable, with a net positive energy
• Can be converted into electricity

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Solar cells

• For use at site of power use
• Integration of solar energy into the electrical
  grid
• Semi-conductor
• Absorb photon
• Excite electron into conduction band
• Mobile electron holes
• directional flow of electrons
• An array of solar cells produce a usable quantity
  of direct current (DC)
• Store the charge that is produced

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n-doped Si (electron rich) and p-doped Si
(electron poor)
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Types of solar cells

• Wafer- based crystaline silicon
• Mono vs. poly (less efficient, but cheaper)
• Thin film Si more flexible, lighter
• Cadmium telluride (Cd/Te) solar cell easier to
  deposit/large scale production
• Cu/In/Ga
• Organic polymer cells (low cost, large scale
  production and flexibility, poor efficiency)
• Sensitized Solar cells (Grätzel cells)
  semi-conductor formed between photo-sensitized
  anode and an electrolyte

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Performance

• Efficiency (5-20 )
• Manufacturing cost (materials and methods)
• Net Energy Analysis (Break even in 1-7 yrs
  depending on solar cell)
• Trade-off between efficiency and cost

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Additional factors

• Solar concentrators (use a large area of lenses
  or mirrors to focus sunlight on a small area of
  photovoltaic cells)
• 400 suns
• 300 times reduction of materials
• Inverters and grid integration
• One way to two way grids that communicate

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Table 2.13 Technical Barriers in
Photovoltaics Photovoltaic Technical
Barriers Modules A. Material Utilization
Cost B. Design Packaging C. Manufacturing
Processes D. Efficiency Inverters Other BOS E.
Inverter Reliability Grid Integration F. Energy
Management Systems G. BOS Cost Installation
Efficiency Systems Engineering Integration H.
Systems Engineering I. Modularity
Standardization J. Building-integrated products
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2015 Goal

• PV-produced electricity and domestic installed PV
  generation capacity of 5-10 GW
• 1000 GW/yr of electricity in US
• Much more long term

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Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) technologies

• Large scale electricity plants in the Southwest
  US
• CSP plants produce power by first converting the
  suns energy into heat, next into mechanical
  power, and lastly, into electricity in a
  conventional generator.
• Thermal storage (molten salt) or hybrid natural
  gas system

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Nuclear Energy

• How does a nuclear reactor work?
• Is it a major energy source worldwide?
• Problems
• Waste Disposal
• Accidents
• Future
• Research
• Generation IV

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Nuclear Energy Plant

• Nuclear Fission
• 235U n ? 236U ? 92Kr 141Ba g 3n
• Chain Reaction
• Controlled by control (graphite) rods and water
  coolant
• Heat from reactor is cooled by circulating
  pressurized water
• Heat exchange with secondary water loop produces
  steam
• Steam turns turbine generator to produce
  electricity

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Present Nuclear Energy

• 100 plant produce about 20 of the electricity
  in US
• 431 plants worldwide in 31 countries produce
  about 17 of the worlds electricity
• Environmental Impact
• No Greenhouse gases
• Completely contained in normal operation
• Spent fuel issue

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Waste Disposal

• Waste kept at plant, but running out of room.
• Site chosen in Nevada for nuclear waste.
• Research on safe transportation
• Nuclear proliferation fuel is very dilute and
  not easily converted to weapons grade
• Stored in very heavy casings (difficult to steal)

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Accidents

• Nuclear Meltdown
• Chernobyl
• Three Mile Island
• Environmentalist watch dogs note other near
  misses in recent years

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Chernobyl (1986)

• A planned test gone horribly wrong
• The test
• See if turbine generator could power the water
  pumps that cool the reactor in the event of a
  loss of power
• Crew shut off power too rapidly, producing a Xe
  isotopes that poisons the reactor
• In response the rods were lifted to stimulate
  reaction
• The lower cooling rate of the pumps during the
  experiment led to steam buildup that increase
  reactor power
• Temperature increased so rapidly, that rod
  insertion could not be performed in time to stop
  meltdown
• Roof blew off, oxygen rushed in a caused fire
  that spread radioactive material over a large area

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Blame

• Management communication
• A bizarre series of operator mistakes
• Plant design, poor or no containment vessels
• Large positive void coefficient (steam bubbles in
  coolant)
• Poor graphite control rod design
• Poorly trained operators
• Shut off safety systems
• Helicopter drops
• Coverup

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Consequences

• Deaths of plant and workers
• Medical problems (short and large term)
• Thyroid cancer
• Contaminated soil as far as Great Britain
• Billions of

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Three Mile Island

• Partial meltdown
• No radiation escaped
• Caused fear of nuclear power and cost in terms
  of clean up
• Operator error and lack of safety backups in
  design
• In some ways the accident showed how the kind of
  catastrophic disaster at Chernobyl is avoidable

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types

• Generation I retired one of a kinds
• In operation Gen II and Gen III
• Gen II was a large design changes
• Gen III and Gen II, upgraded with many safety
  features along the way
• Gen III plus (passive safety systems)
• Gen IV, 30 yrs away

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Gen IV

• Very High Temperature Reactor
• Advance Nuclear Safety
• Address Nuclear Nonproliferation and Physical
  Protection Issues
• Are Competitively Priced
• Minimize Waste and Optimize Natural Resource
  Utilization
• Compatible with Hydrogen Generation

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Gen IV Roadmap - 2002

• Solicited design models
• Chose six design models to base future research
• Out of these six, the DOE has relatively recently
  selected two for further investment
• Very-High Temperature Reactor (VHTR)
• Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactors (SFR)

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Very-High Temperature Reactor

• Reach temperatures gt 1000 C
• Drive water splitting for hydrogen production 2
  M m3
• 50 efficiency for producing electricity
• Heat and power generation
• Fuel recycling/reprocessing
• Fuel coating requirements, absorbers, ceramic
  rods, vessel materials, passive heat removal
  systems

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Actinide management

• To support effective actinide management a fast
  reactor must have a compact core with a minimum
  of materials which absorb or moderate fast
  neutrons. This places a significant heat transfer
  requirement on the coolant.

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Sodium-Cooled Fast Reactors

• Old technology
• Management of waste
• Low system pressure, high thermal conductivity,
  large safety margins.
• Burns almost all of the energy in uranium, as
  opposed to 1 in todays plants
• Smaller core with higher power density, lower
  enrichment, and lower heavy metal inventory.
• Primary system operates at just above atmospheric
  pressure
• Secondary sodium circulation that heats the water
  (if it leaks, no radiation release)
• Demonstrated capability for passive shutdown and
  decay heat removal.

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Wind Energy

• Electricity
• In 2005, 18 GW produced in US, enough to supply
  1.6 million households
• By 2008, 121 GW worldwide (1.5 )
• It has doubled in the last 3.5 years
• Largest farm in US in Texas
• 421 turbines, 230,000 homes
• Cape Cod/Long Island plan
• Capacity in US
• 170 turbines, 25 sq miles, 500,000 homes (2007)
• 28,635 MW, 1.5 M homes (as of April 30, 2009).

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20 by 2030 initiative

• 300 GW goal
• The wind industry is on track to grow to a size
  capable of installing 16,000 MW/year

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Politics and economics

• Not in my backyard
• The cost of the project grows (the big dig
  phenomenon

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Cape cod

• 130 wind turbines
• 420 megawatts
• 3/4 of the Cape and Islands electricity needs
• The late Senator Kennedy and the candidates for
  his seat.

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Long Island Wind Farm

• Each wind turbine will generate 3.6 megawatts.
• The project will consist of 40 turbines,
  producing a total of 140 megawatts.
• The facility will generate enough energy to power
  approximately 44,000 homes.
• Each turbine rotor has three blades approximately
  182 ft. long.
• The turbines shut down at wind speeds beyond 56
  mph.
• Project called off in 2007 (voted down)
• But new project surfacing in 2008/09 700 (MWs)

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Rhode Island

• State officials picked Deepwater Wind to build a
  1.5-billion, 385-megawatt wind farm in federal
  waters off Block Island. The 100-turbine project
  could provide 1.3 terawatt-hours (TWh) of
  electricity per year - 15 percent of all
  electricity used in the state.

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2005 Report from the National Renewable Energy
Laboratory

• Estimates offshore US wind potential
• Offshore has several advantages over onshore
• Land with greatest wind potentials are far from
  populated centers
• Less of an eye sore
• Stronger, more dependable winds
• Use of larger, more economical turbines

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US Offshore Wind Resource Exclusions Inside 5nm
100 exclusion?? 67 -5 to 20nm resource
exclusion to account for avian, marine mammal,
view shed, restricted habitats, shipping routes
other habitats. ?? 33 exclusion20 to 50 nm??
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Deep Water Wind Turbine Development
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Deep water

• In June 2009, Secretary of the Interior Ken
  Salazar issued five exploratory leases for wind
  power production on the Outer Continental Shelf
  offshore from New Jersey and Delaware. The leases
  authorize data gathering activities, allowing for
  the construction of meteorological towers on the
  Outer Continental Shelf from six to 18 miles
  offshore.

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US Potential

• Over 1 TW, which is about equal to the total
  capacity for electricity generation in US.
• Requires research into the construction of
  off(off)shore turbines
• Research into potential environmental impacts
• Research into best sites (wind/wave action, whale
  migration, ect.)
• 10-15 yrs from commercial deepwater technology

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Hydro

• 7 of US electricity
• 70 of renewable electricity
• Research
• improving environmental impact of damming
• Expand use
• Hydrokinetic (wave, tidal, current, and ocean
  thermal energy)

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Potential of harnessing wave energy

• Young technology
• But maybe 7 of our total electricity

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Fusion

• Rxn
• Nuclei confined by magnetic field
• Capture neutrons
• Extract heat
• Drive reaction (self-sustained)
• Steam-turbine-electricity
• Physics of plasma
• Materials
• Stability

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Research timeline

• JET 16 MW for 0.5 s
• 1983-2004
• ITER 500 MW for 1000 s
• 2018 start date
• DEMO 2000 MW continuously
• 2030-2040

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Carbon trapping
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Energy use by sector (worldwide)

• Transportation 20
• Industrial 38
• Residential heating, lighting, and appliances 11
  
• Commercial heating, lighting, sewer, ect, 5
• 27 lost in generation and transmission

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Hydrogen Generation

• Uses Solar energy to generate hydrogen
• Photovoltaic cells convert light to electricity
  that drives electrochemical splitting of water to
  hydrogen and oxygen
• Earlier studies estimate the maximum conversion
  efficiencies of 15
• Conversion efficiencies of 30 have been
  demonstated

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30 obtained by

• Eliminating the linkage of photo to electrolysis
  surface area
• Ideal matching of photo- and electrolysis
  potentials
• Incorporating better electrolysis catalysts
• Incorporating efficient multiple bandgap
  photosensitizers

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Hypothesis

• Further improvements can be made by using the
  photons that are below the minimum band gap
  energy of the sensitizers to heat the water.
• Theory predicts that the potential needed to
  drive electrolysis decreases with increasing
  temperature and lowers the overpotential.
• This would increase the efficiency of
  electrolysis to about 40-50

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Attempt to put the idea into perspective

• How much energy could be produced from this type
  of solar tower?
• From Figure 3, the potential power collected by
  the photosensitizer is about 80 mW/cm2
• This equates to 80108 W/km2
• Total Energy consumption (worldwide) is 1.51013
  W
• Photosensitizers would have to take up an area of
  18800 km2 (100 efficiency), 100000 km2 (18 ),
  38000 km2 (50 )
• 18 PA, 50 Conn and MA

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Figures
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Electric Cars

• Plug in to charger in garage
• Limited mileage, but ideal for most commuters
• Equivalent to over 150 mpg on a cost basis
• Pb, NiCd, NiMH, Li ion, Li ion polymer batteries
  (expensive to replace)

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Toyota RAV4-EV

• Only 328 leased/purchased to individuals in
  2003-04.
• Sold for 42000 in CA and Arizona (with Cal
  rebate 29,000
• Battery replacement 26000 (third party vendors)
• About 80-120 miles (130-190 km) on full battery
• Top speed 78 miles/hr
• 0-60 in 18 s
• Charging takes 5 hrs

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Debate why have these electric cars not been
successful

• Cost?
• Performance?
• Conspiracy between oil companies and auto
  industry

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2007 electric cars

• Telsa Roadster
• 100 vehicles to be sold, 650 in 2008
• Lithium ion batteries
• 0-60 in 4 s
• 135 mph equiv.
• 2 cents/mile
• 245 miles/charge
• Top speed 125 mph
• 90,000
• Company Strategy

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Who killed the electric car?

• Chris Payne 2007 Documentary
• Consumers
• Lots of ambivalence to new technology,
  unwillingness to compromise on decreased range
  and increased cost for improvements to air
  quality and reduction of dependence on foreign
  oil.
• Batteries
• Limited range (60-70 miles) and reliability
  Lithium ion batteries, the same technology
  available in laptops would have allowed the EV-1
  to be upgraded to a range of 300 miles per
  charge.
• Oil companies
• Fearful of losing business to a competing
  technology, they supported efforts to kill the
  ZEV mandate. They also bought patents to prevent
  modern batteries from being used in US electric
  cars.
• Car companies
• Negative marketing, sabotaging their own product
  program, failure to produce cars to meet existing
  demand, unusual business practices with regards
  to leasing versus sales.

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Continued

• Government
• The federal government joined in the auto
  industry suit against California, has failed to
  act in the public interest to limit pollution and
  require increased fuel economy, has promoted the
  purchase of vehicles with poor fuel efficiency
  through preferential tax breaks, and has
  redirected alternative fuel research from
  electric towards hydrogen.
• California Air Resources Board
• The CARB, headed by Alan Lloyd, caved to industry
  pressure and repealed the ZEV mandate. Lloyd was
  given the directorship of the new fuel cell
  institute, creating an inherent conflict of
  interest.
• Hydrogen fuel cell
• The hydrogen fuel cell was presented by the film
  as an alternative that distracts attention from
  the real and immediate potential of electric
  vehicles to an unlikely future possibility
  embraced by automakers, oil companies and a
  pro-business administration in order to buy time
  and profits for the status quo.
• GM is bring back the EV this coming year. It
  will be a hybrid that also plugs into the wall.

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Li ion battery

• Battery specifications
• Energy/weight160 Wh/kg
• Energy/size270 Wh/L
• Power/weight1800 W/kg
• Charge/discharge efficiency99.91
• Energy/consumer-price2.8-5 Wh/US2
• Self-discharge rate5-10/month
• Time durability(24-36) months
• Cycle durability1200 cycles
• Nominal Cell Voltage3.6 / 3.7 V

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electrochemistry

• In a lithium-ion battery the lithium ions are
  transported to and from the cathode or anode,
  with the transition metal, Co, in LixCoO2 being
  oxidized from Co3 to Co4 during charging, and
  reduced from Co4 to Co3 during discharge.

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Recent Advances

• Nano-sized titanate electrode material for
  lithium-ion batteries. I
• three times the power output of existing
  batteries and can be fully charged in six
  minutes.
• 20,000 recharging cycles, so durability and
  battery life are much longer, estimated to be
  around 20 years
• The batteries can operate from -50 C to over 75
  C and will not explode or result in thermal
  runaway even under severe conditions because they
  do not contain graphite-coated-metal anode
  electrode material
• The batteries are currently being tested in a
  new production car made by Phoenix Motorcars
  which was on display at the 2006 SEMA motorshow.
• In March 2005, Toshiba announced another fast
  charging lithium-ion battery, based on new
  nano-material technology, that provides even
  faster charge times, greater capacity, and a
  longer life cycle. The battery may be used in
  commercial products in 2006 or early 2007,
  primarily in the industrial and automotive
  sectors.