PYB1: Introducing Psychology: Explaining Gender Revision

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PYB1 Introducing Psychology Explaining Gender

• Revision Material

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Explaining Gender - syllabus

• Biological Explanations
• typical and atypical sex chromosome patterns
  influence of androgens (including testosterone)
  and oestrogen.
• Social Learning Approach
• including reference to reinforcement, modelling,
  imitation and identification.
• Cognitive Approach
• including Kohlbergs cognitive-developmental
  theory, including reference to gender identity,
  gender stability and gender constancy.
• Psychoanalytic Approach
• including Freuds psychoanalytic theory,
  reference to identification and Oedipus/Electra
  complex.

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Biological Explanations

• Assumes gender sex are interrelated.
• Differences between sexes are attributed to
  anatomical differences action of hormones.
• (Stress on internal factors/ Nature argument
  anatomy is destiny.)

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Typical Sex Chromosome Patterns

• Chromosomes biochemical units of heredity
  have 46 matched into 23 pairs (each controls
  different area of development)
• Pair 23 control anatomical sex of person
• Normal chromosome pattern
• XX female
• XY male

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Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns (1) Turners
Syndrome

• When females develop only one X chromosome on
  pair 23 designated XO
• Effects female in appearance but ovaries fail
  to develop (due to this no production of
  oestrogen or progesterone). Physical differences
  webbed neck, broad chest, shorter in height (no
  taller than 48), at puberty breasts do no
  develop no menstruation. Cognitive differences
  higher than average verbal ability, lower than
  average spatial ability, visual memory,
  arithmetic skills. Behavioural differences
  hypersensitive, poor peer relations
• Treatment female hormone therapy from puberty
  to aid development of menstruation secondary
  sexual characteristics (e.g. breasts).

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Atypical Sex Chromosome Patterns (2)
Klinefelters Syndrome

• When males have an extra X chromosome on pair 23
  designated XXY
• Effects Physical differences appear male
  physically but extra X chromosome means have less
  body hair and underdeveloped genitals. Cognitive
  differences poor language skills in childhood
  (many dont talk before 3), lower reading
  ability. Behavioural differences passive
  co-operative, calm shy throughout life
• Treatment hormone therapy from puberty can help
  development of normal sexual characteristics
  which can help reduce possible psychological
  problems.
• Conclusion evidence of atypical sex chromosome
  patterns supports biological explanation of
  gender development as shows how biological sex
  gender development are closely linked.

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Influence of sex hormones (1)

• Hormones chemical substances in the glands
  (endocrine system)
• Sex hormones androgens (including
  testosterone), oestrogen, progesterone. Each are
  present in normal males females but in
  differing amounts.
• Evidence of effects of sex hormones supports
  biological explanation of gender development.

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Influence of sex hormones (2)Testosterone

• Androgens associated with male development
• Testosterone most important androgen. Leads to
  development of male external sexual organs. Acts
  on brain pituitary system.
• Effects high levels are associated with
  aggression.

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Influence of sex hormones (3)Oestrogen

• Oestrogen responsible for controlling onset of
  menstruation foetal development when pregnant.
  Important in females after puberty due to
  influence on menstrual cycle.
• Behavioural Effects in some women can lead to
  PMT/PMS. In some women can lead to aggression,
  anti-social behaviour, criminal acts (e.g.
  shoplifting PMS has been used as defence in
  court cases)

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Biological Explanations evidenceMoney
Ehrhardt (1972)

• Aim - To investigate the effects of social
  elements in developing gender identity.
• Method - Ten individuals with testicular
  feminising syndrome were studied. They had all
  been categorised as girls at birth on the basis
  of their external genitalia and raised as
  females.
• Results - The individuals tended to be more
  tomboyish than other girls but did show a
  preference for the female role.
• Concs - Interaction of biological and social
  factors is important in explaining gender
  development.

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Biological Explanations evidenceImperato-McGinl
ey (1979)
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Biological Explanations - Evaluation

• There are clear biological differences between
  males and females which could affect their
  understanding of gender.
• Evidence of atypical chromosome patterns and
  effect of sex hormones supports the theory that
  biological sex and gender are closely linked.
• Lateralisation between males and females may
  happen at birth due to biological factors, but
  this theory does not allow for the fact that
  distinctions between males and females may be
  reinforced socially (unlike SLT approach to
  gender development.)
• It is difficult to distinguish between the
  effects of nature and nurture.
• Erhardt rejects idea of biological determinism
  (anatomy destiny) argues that gender of the
  child is socially not biologically constructed.

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Exam question June 2006 - Name one sex hormone
and give an example of how this hormone might
affect a persons behaviour. (2)

• AO1 One mark for correct identification of a sex
  hormone, eg testosterone oestrogen.
• AO2 One mark for an appropriate example of the
  effect of this hormone on male or female
  behaviour.
• Possible answers
• Testosterone (AO1, 1). The effect of this
  hormone may be in terms of increased aggression
  (AO2, 1).
• Oestrogen (AO1, 1). The effect of this hormone
  may give rise to pre-menstrual tension (PMT)
  (AO2, 1).

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Exam question June 2006 - Victoria is five
years old and she is different from other girls
of her age. She is smaller in height and has a
webbed neck. At school, her teachers have
commented that she has good verbal skills but her
mathematical skills are poor. Medical tests have
revealed that Victoria has a sex chromosome
pattern XO. (i) Name the atypical sex
chromosome syndrome described above.(1 mark)
(ii) Identify how Victorias sex chromosome
pattern differs from that of most girls. (1
mark) (iii) Explain how studying people like
Victoria can contribute to our understanding of
gender. (2 marks)

• (i) AO1 One mark for the correct identification
  of the syndrome. Turners syndrome.
• (ii) AO1 One mark for the correct identification
  of the typical sex chromosome pattern for girls,
  eg most girls have a sex chromosome pattern XX.
• (iii) AO2 Two marks for an appropriate
  explanation. Possible answer By studying people
  with atypical sex chromosomes and comparing their
  development with that of people with typical sex
  chromosomes (AO2, 1), psychologists are able to
  make inferences as to what aspects of gender
  behaviour are genetic (AO2, 1).

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How to answer a 10 mark question on the
Biological Explanation

• AO1
• Describe features/ assumptions of biological
  explanation of gender inc gender is determined
  by
• action of hormones, or
• result of evolutionary factors, or
• genes linked to sex chromosomes
• Describe relevant study e.g. Imperato
  McGinley
• AO2
• Discuss how evidence supports biological
  explanation of behaviour e.g.
• Studies of people with atypical sex chromosomes
• Case studies
• Evidence will be discussed in terms of how the
  results conclusions support the biological
  approach possibly limitations of this evidence
  or alternative explanations for the results
• Contrast biological explanation with other
  explanations such as psychoanalytic or social
  learning approach evidence which supports these
  approaches.

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Social Learning Approach

• Assumes behaviour is a product of environmental
  influences and is learned as a result of
  observation modelling.
• (Stress on external factors/ Nurture argument)
• Children learn by observing what types of
  attitudes behaviours are associated with their
  gender. If this behaviour is rewarded it is more
  likely to be repeated. Therefore their behaviour
  is shaped by those around them in a social
  context (opposite to biological approach)

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Social Learning Approach

• Reinforcement
• When behaviour becomes associated with a positive
  or negative response.
• If the response to the behaviour is positive, it
  is more likely to be repeated (reinforcement). If
  the response is negative (e.g. punishment) it is
  less likely to be repeated.
• Mischel (1966) children learn sex-roles by
  being reinforced directly for doing
  sex-appropriate things for imitating same sex
  role models.

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Social Learning Approach

• Modelling
• Modelling refers to behaviour which is observed
  (1), and having been observed can be repeated
  imitated.
• One person is the model (who provides the
  example), the other individual (e.g. the child)
  interprets the behaviour
• Factors which increase chance of modelling are
  appropriateness relevance of model (e.g. same
  sex role model)

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Social Learning Approach

• Imitation
• Copying behaviour the quickest type of learning
  in humans and animals.
• Behaviour is imitated as it is seen as rewarding
  if reinforcement doesnt happen, imitation
  usually ends.

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Social Learning Approach

• Identification
• Identification occurs with another person (the
  model), and involves taking on a range of
  observed behaviours, values, beliefs attitudes
  of the person with whom you are identifying.
• Attachment to specific models who possess
  qualities seen as rewarding. Important factor in
  choice of model is that the model has a quality
  the child would like to possess.

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Social Learning Approach Evidence Bandura et
al (1963)

• Aim - To investigate modelling with children
• Method Children observe an adult behaving
  aggressively towards a large inflatable Bobo
  doll. The adult attacked the doll in unusual ways
  (e.g. hitting it with a hammer, saying things
  like Powboomboom). The children were then
  left in the playroom and their behaviour was
  observed. A control group of children played in
  the playroom with the same toys but did not
  observe the adult attacking the doll.
• Results Behaviour of the experimental group was
  very similar to that of the adult model. The
  control group did not display similar behaviour.
• Conclusion - Children imitated the behaviour of
  the adult model they had observed.

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Social Learning Approach Evidence Bussey
Bandura (1992)
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Social Learning Approach Evaluation positive
points

• Flexible approach allows for changes in
  personality, identification imitation occur
  throughout life. (unlike biological
  psychoanalytic approaches which assume
  personality fixed/determined.)
• Leary et al (1982) children who frequently watch
  TV are more likely to hold gender stereotypes and
  conform to appropriate gender roles
• Smith Lloyd (1978) mothers related to babies
  dressed in pink or blue differently
• Bandura et al (1961, 1963) boys more likely to
  imitate aggressive role models. More likely to
  imitate same-sex model.

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Social Learning Approach Evaluation negative
points

• Doesnt account for differences between children
  in same household SLT assumes boys all similar
  girls all similar doesnt allow for
  individual differences. E.g. Harris (1999) argued
  children raised in same environment not always
  similar in gender development.
• Doesnt take into account a childs own
  understanding of their gender role
• Schaffer (1996) even children treated in unisex
  way by families develop gender stereotypes
• Snow (1983) behavioural differences may not be
  caused by fact that parents treat their children
  differently, parents may treat children
  differently because of behavioural differences
• Maccoby Jacklin (1974) found no consistent
  differences in extent to which boys reinforced
  for aggressiveness more than girls.

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Exam question - June 2004 (c) Jack, who is 5
years old, was watching his favourite cartoon on
the television. The cartoon was about a boy who
was rewarded for helping his father with jobs,
including washing the car. After the cartoon had
ended, Jack immediately went to his father and
said Daddy, can we wash the car please? With
reference to the social learning approach,
explain the effect of the cartoon on Jacks
behaviour. (4)

• AO1 Two marks for reference to aspects of
  the social learning approach, eg modelling
  (observation/imitation), observation,
  identification, vicarious conditioning
  associated with gender, environmental influence,
  media.
• AO2 Two marks for reference to the stimulus
  material that illustrates the aspects identified.
  The application should be detailed to gain two
  marks. For example, Jack has identified with the
  boy in the cartoon who he perceives as his role
  model. Jack sees this behaviour as gender
  appropriate and leads him to want to reproduce
  the behaviour observed.

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Exam question June 2005 - Distinguish between
the terms imitation and identification. (3 marks)

• AO1 One mark each for the correct identification
  of the terms.
• Possible answer Imitation refers to copying
  behaviour (AO1, 1). Identification refers to
  taking on the behaviour of a role model (AO1, 1).
• AO2 One mark for the distinction between these
  terms.
• Possible answer Imitation usually refers to a
  single behaviour whereas identification is more
  permanent and applies to a whole range of
  behaviours (AO2, 1).
• Credit answers which refer to an appropriate
  example.

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How to answer a 10 mark question on the Social
Learning Approach

• AO1 Description of features/assumptions of social
  learning theory including
• How gender role identity is learned through
  positive reinforcement and modelling, where a
  child is rewarded for sex-appropriate behaviour
  and punished for inappropriate behaviour
• How behaviour is also learned indirectly through
  the modelling of parents, stereotypes and the
  media. Any feature within society plays an
  important role in the acquisition of gender
  identity.
• Children learn by identification with role models
• AO2
• Discuss theory of the acquisition of gender
  identity presented in AO1 e.g. learning through
  identification with role models will need to be
  explained in relation to features of the role
  models which may be attractive to boys or girls
  and influence their behaviour. If features of
  role model are unattractive, child will not
  identify with them.
• Response will focus on the supporting/conflicting
  evidence for the theory. - Contrast with
  alternative approaches. E.g.
• Biological theory states gender is innate and
  universal society plays no role in the
  acquisition of gender theory
• Cognitive approach offers some middle ground to
  the social learning theory in stating that
  aspects of society can be an important feature in
  providing information which can then be
  incorporated into the gender schema
• Psychoanalytic approach states that society plays
  no particular role beyond the behaviour of the
  parents
• Relate directly to stimulus material if scenario
  is presented

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Cognitive Approach

• Focus on internal mental world of child and how
  they react to external stimuli. How child
  actively constructs and understands gender.
• (Stress on internal factors)
• The childs discovery that they are male or
  female causes them to identify with members of
  their own sex (SLT psychoanalytic approaches
  argue this happens the other way round.)

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Cognitive Approach - schemas

• A schema is a mental structure which holds a
  collection of ideas and associations which guide
  behaviour.
• A gender schema contains ideas about what is
  appropriate behaviour for males and females, this
  influences the individuals behaviour.
• Bem argues that children organise their ideas
  about gender as a result of their observations of
  their social world.
• Gender divisions are culturally defined.

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Cognitive Approach Kohlbergs Cognitive
Development Theory

• Very young children become aware of a male/female
  divide as they are starting to make sense of the
  world around them. This is based on attitudes
  behaviour (not physical differences like
  psychoanalytic approach).
• By 2½ a child can clearly identify themselves as
  male or female and can identify others as male or
  female.
• The child is at the centre of the learning
  process and try to make sense of the world by
  acting on it.
• By 4 years of age children select more
  stereotypical activities than older or younger
  children.
• By 7 years of age children can conserve
  information (Piagets experiments) develop
  gender constancy.

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Cognitive Approach Kohlbergs Theory (1)

• Gender Identity
• Approx 2 years old
• Knowledge that own gender is male or female (can
  answer question are you a boy or girl?)
• Can label others male or female
• Knowledge is fragile, child does not appreciate
  that gender stable

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Cognitive Approach Kohlbergs Theory (2)

• Gender Stability
• Approx 4-5 years old
• Knowledge that own gender will remain constant
  throughout life (e.g. boys become men, girls
  become women they will always be same sex)
• Still relies on superficial features (e.g. hair
  length) to determine gender.

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Cognitive Approach Kohlbergs Theory (3)

• Gender Constancy
• Approx 7 years old
• Recognising that gender remains the same for
  everyone in spite of superficial changes/external
  appearances (e.g. clothes, hair, toys played
  with)
• Understanding that biological sex does not change
  even if situation changes (e.g. a boy doesnt
  become a girl if he wears a dress or plays with a
  doll)

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Cognitive Approach Evidence - Damon (1977)

• Aim - To investigate the development of the
  understanding of gender in children aged 4 to 9
  to see whether the concept changed over time.
• Method - Damon told the children a story about a
  boy named George who enjoyed playing with dolls.
  Georges parents wanted to discourage him and
  said that only girls play with dolls. The
  children were then asked questions about whether
  people were right to interfere with the type of
  toys children play with and whether it was
  alright for George to play with dolls if he
  wanted.
• Results - The childrens answers varied according
  to age. 4 year olds thought it was fine for
  George to play with dolls, the 6 year olds
  thought it was wrong and should not be allowed, 9
  year olds thought it was unusual but not a bad
  thing to do and George should be allowed to play
  with dolls if he wants.
• Conclusion - Childrens understanding of gender
  appropriate behaviour changes with age and is a
  reflection of the cognitive development.

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Cognitive Approach - evidence
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Cognitive Approach Evaluation positive points

• Sees the child as having an active role in
  gaining gender identity, doesnt play passive
  role/ not victim of hormones/ instincts/ social
  learning (compare to other approaches)
• Munroe et al (1984) found that the concepts of
  gender identity to gender stability to gender
  constancy occur across many cultures.
• Damon (1977) (story of George who played with
  dolls)
• Kuhn et al (1978) (paper dolls of Michael
  Lisa)

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Cognitive Approach Evaluation negative points

• Theory tends to be descriptive rather than
  explanatory does not explain why children
  select the categories they do and what they
  incorporate into their gender schema. Social
  Learning Theory explains this process better
  through reinforcement modelling.
• Kohlbergs theory doesnt recognise individuality
  within the gender concept some girls may have a
  very traditional feminine identity while others
  are more assertive. Does not explain
  individuality in way males and females understand
  concepts of masculinity femininity. Gender
  concepts can change over time (e.g. was
  considered unmanly to be involved in childcare,
  now is expected), some people change others
  dont Social Learning Theory explains this
  better.
• Huston (1983) Even infant babies show marked
  preference for stereotypical male or female toys
  (even though theory predicts there should be
  little or no gender appropriate behaviour before
  gender constancy is achieved.)

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Exam question Jan 2007 (c) Philip is seven
years old and is going to a fancy dress party. He
is wearing a dress.Philips little brother,
Sydney, says, Look, mummy! Philips a girl now!
Philip replies, I am still a boy, even if I am
wearing a dress. (i) With reference to
Kohlbergs cognitive-developmental theory,
identify the stage of gender development shown by
Sydney. In your answer, refer to comments made by
Sydney. (2)(ii) With reference to Kohlbergs
cognitive-developmental theory, identify the
stage of gender development shown by Philip. In
your answer, refer to comments made by Philip.
(2)

• (i) AO1 One mark for correct identification of
  the stage of gender development. Gender identity.
  Accept reference to gender stability.
• AO2 One mark for reference to the stimulus
  material that explains the stage identified.
• (ii) AO1 One mark for correct identification of
  the stage of gender development.
• Gender constancy
• AO2 One mark for reference to the stimulus
  material that explains the stage identified.

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How to answer a 10 mark question on the Cognitive
Explanation

• AO1 - Description of features/assumptions of
  cognitive approach including Kohlbergs Theory,
  where a childs understanding of their own gender
  concept becomes more sophisticated with age. The
  three stages of gender development are
• Gender Identity around 2 years, where a child
  is simply able to label his/her own sex correctly
  and to identify other people as boys or girls.
• Gender Stability between 3½ and 4½ years, where
  a child understands that people stay the same
  gender throughout their life.
• Gender Constancy between 4½ and 7 years, where
  a child understands that someone stays the same
  biological sex even though external appearance
  may be different.
• Refer to empirical evidence, e.g.
• Damon (1977) in demonstrating how a childs
  understanding of gender develops with age.
• Bem gender schema theory
• AO2
• Discuss the cognitive approach to gender
  development with reference to empirical evidence,
  e.g.
• Slaby Frey (1975) showed how pre-school
  children rated as having gender constancy
  actively seek information in developing
  gender-appropriate behaviour
• Criticisms e.g. theory doesnt account for
  individual differences in childs understanding
  of masculinity/femininity Kohlbergs theory may
  be more descriptive than explanatory
• Contrast with other approaches, e.g.
• Social learning theory development of a childs
  schema through reinforcement modelling.
• Biological approach genetic and hormonal
  factors cause gender-appropriate behaviour.
• Relate directly to stimulus material if scenario
  is presented

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Psychoanalytic Approach

• Assumes development of gender identity is linked
  to interpersonal relationships between child
  parent.
• The parent-child relationship forms the mould
  which stays with the child their whole life.
• Parental relationship forms a prototype which
  remains with the person all of their life.
• Assumes presence of the unconscious mind.
  (Internal external factors)

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Psychoanalytic ApproachFreuds Psychoanalytic
Theory

• Theory is linked to ideas surrounding infantile
  sexuality.
• Stages of development in first 5 years Oral
  stage (1st year), Anal stage (2nd-5th year),
  Phallic stage (5th 6th year) all linked to
  biological development.
• Libido sexual energy which motivates behaviour.

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Psychoanalytic ApproachFreuds Psychoanalytic
Theory (2)

• First 3 years of life child bisexual.
• The childs relationship with the mother is
  crucial intense, develops into auto-eroticism.
• Phallic Stage before this stage the child has
  no fixed gender identity (flexible)
• During this stage gender divisions occur which
  lead to males developing masculine behaviour
  females developing feminine behaviour
• This occurs due to Oedipus/Electra complexes

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Psychoanalytic ApproachOedipus Complex

• Occurs during phallic stage in boys
• Boys affection for mother becomes intensely
  sexual
• Boy sees father as a rival who has the power to
  castrate him
• Unconscious conflict - Boy is torn between love
  for mother fear of father resolves conflict
  by identifying with father.
• Boy assumes masculine identity and looks to
  father as role model.

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Psychoanalytic ApproachElectra Complex

• Occurs during phallic stage in girls
• Girl becomes aware of the male phallus and that
  she wants one (penis envy). Recognises phallus as
  symbol of power.
• Unconscious conflict - Realises is powerless
  mother is also loathes mother for making her
  incomplete.
• Resolves conflict by converting penis envy into
  penis baby project.
• Having resolved her conflict she returns to
  pre-Electra relationship with mother, identifies
  herself as a woman with her mother as a role
  model.

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Beyond Freud Nancy Chodorow

• Freuds theories have influenced other
  psychoanalytic theorists.
• Chodorow argued that the early mother-child
  relationship forms basis of gender identity.
• Mothers daughters same sex so relationship
  closer than between mothers and sons leads to
  fusion and desire to be together whereas sons are
  seen as distant different so mother more likely
  to allow male child independence at an earlier
  age. (Goldberg Lewis study)

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Differences between theories of Sigmund Freud
Nancy Chodorow
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Psychoanalytic ApproachSupporting Evidence
(limited!) Little Hans

• Freud used the case study of Little Hans to
  support his theories. 5 year old Little Hans had
  a phobia of horses. Freud said that Hans was
  really scared of his father because he was bigger
  and could castrate Hans because he desired his
  mother. Freud encouraged Hans father to talk to
  Hans and reassure him that he would one day grow
  up as big as him, Hans then grew up normally.

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Psychoanalytic Approach Supporting Evidence -
Goldberg Lewis (1969)

• Aim - Observed mother-child interactions to
  discover whether this could explain differences
  in the behaviour of boys and girls.
• Method - In laboratory situation, observed
  behaviour of 64 mothers playing with their
  children. They were interviewed when the child
  was 6 months to see if there were any differences
  than, then brought children to the lab when 13
  months old. Each mother-child pair left in a room
  with a chair and 9 toys. Some toys made a noise
  (drums) some were for quieter play (dolls).
• Results - Mother/daughter pairs showed greater
  physical closeness played together with the
  dolls. Mother/son pairs showed less proximity.
  Boys wandered away from mothers, played with
  noisy toys, more independent.
• Concs - Mothers treat children differently
  according to the sex of the child, this
  difference in treatment accounts for gender
  differences in behaviour.
• Evaluation - Dont know how the mothers would
  behave if they had a child of the opposite sex.
  However in other studies when mothers asked to
  interact with a baby dressed in pink or blue,
  they show greater nurturing behaviour to the
  children perceived to be female (Davenport 1994).
  Supports Chodorows theories.
• Means gender differences are due to interactions
  between mother and child contradicts SLT
  approach which argues gender differences are due
  to reinforcement, imitation modelling.

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Psychoanalytic Approach - Evaluation

• No empirical evidence for Oedipal/ Electra
  complexes, theories are based on case studies
  self-analysis.
• Children dont just acquire gender identity in
  one go at a particular age.
• Children are aware of gender roles well before
  age that Freud believed the Oedipus complex was
  resolved boys and girls choose stereotypical
  male/female toys in infancy.
• Children growing up in atypical families are not
  adversely affected often grow up with more
  secure attachments.

50
Exam question June 2004b Briefly describe
Freuds explanation of the Electra complex (3
marks)

• Three marks for correct description including
  three of the following features phallic stage in
  girls, penis envy, castration, penis baby,
  unconscious conflict and resolution, role of
  parents, identification.

51
Exam question Jan 2006a - Outline Freuds
explanation of the Oedipus complex. (3 marks)

• Three marks for correct description including
  three of the following features phallic stage in
  boys, sexual attraction to opposite sex parent,
  castration anxiety, unconscious conflict and
  resolution, identification, etc.

52
Exam question June 2006b - Outline two
criticisms of the psychoanalytic explanation of
gender development. (4 marks)

• One mark for each criticism identified.
• One further mark for elaboration of each
  criticism identified. This may be in the form of
  justification or illustration.
• Likely answers lack of empirical support for the
  Oedipus/Electra complex the Oedipus complex
  arose from Freuds own self-analysis Freuds use
  of the case study of Little Hans as evidence is
  questionable the age at which gender identity
  occurs the gender identity which emerges is a
  response to the father.

53
How to answer a 10 mark question on the
Psychoanalytic Explanation

• AO1- Description of features/assumptions of
  psychoanalytic approach including
• The unconscious process, importance of
  interaction with parents, gender identity is
  fixed in the early years, assumptions of
  psychoanalytic approach
• Describe Freuds theory in terms of the Oedipus
  and Electra complex in the phallic stage
• AO2
• Discuss strengths of approach
• Freud very limited support case of Little
  Hans not empirical evidence
• Chodorow discuss her work and evidence to
  support it (Goldberg Lewis)
• Discuss limitations of approach
• Lack of evidence or evidence which refutes theory
  e.g. studies which show that children brought
  up in single-sex of same-sex families have no
  greater difficultly with gender identity than
  those brought up in traditional families.
• Compare to alternative approaches
• Psychoanalytic explanation emphasises the
  unconscious/conscious in gender acquisition
  (nature) but fails to fully appreciate the role
  of nurture/environment such as in social learning
  theory
• Benefits of psychoanalytic explanation in
  emphasising role of parents in gender development
  shows limitations of biological approach
• Could contrast timing of gender identity during
  phallic stage with cognitive explanation which
  views this process as taking place over a number
  of years in childhood.
• Relate directly to stimulus material if scenario
  is presented