Sociology of Sport V. Psychology of Sport

1
Sociology of Sport V. Psychology of Sport

• Locus of Control Difference
• Fundamental Attribution Error
• Instinct v. Culture
• Intelligence v. Internalization

2
Psychology of Sport

• Study in terms of attributes and processes that
  exist inside the individual
• Focus on motivation, cognition, self-esteem, and
  personality
• Sample research question
• How is the motivation of athletes related to
  their athletic success?

3
Sociology of Sport

• Sociologists study sport in terms of the social
  conditions that surround and are outside the
  individual athlete
• Focus on relations, culture, social class,
  sexuality, and ethnicity
• Sample research question
• how do the prevailing cultural definitions of
  masculinity and femininity affect the success of
  athletes?

4
Why Resistance to the Sociology of Sport?

• Too Complex
• Easier to change individual athletes
• Easier to change the way athletes deal with
  external conditions
• Requires a change in the external conditions of
  athletes lives
• Personally Troubling
• Coaches and parents view changes as causing
  trouble
• Changing the way coaches exercise power and
  control over athletes requires coaches to make
  personal changes
• Requires a change in the external conditions of
  athletes lives

5
Why Apply the Sociology of Sport?

• Think Critically
• Understand social problems of athletes and the
  social issues associated with sport
• Beyond Physical Performance
• See beyond the score and see how sport affects
  the way people feel, think, and live their lives
• Informed Choices
• Learning about sociology of sport will help you
  make intelligent choices about your own
  participation
• Transforming Sport
• Making schools and communities more inclusive
  through sports

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Why study Sociology of Sport?

• Sport is related to all aspects of a society
• Learning about the sociology of sport teaches
  about the society
• Ideology a combination of ideal, beliefs and
  attitudes
• Dominant ideology the combination promoted by
  the dominant and powerful groups of a society

7
Gender Ideology

• Sports first developed around an ideology of
  gender
• A gender logic that existed in the dominant
  culture
• Gender logic worked to the advantage of men
• Gender logic was referred to a common sense
• The basic tenet of gender logic
• Women are naturally inferior to men!
• In strength
• Physical skill
• Emotional control
• Intelligence

8
Gender Ideology (2)

• The dominant ideology led to a sport vocabulary
  supporting the gender logic
• Correct throw ( like a man)
• Incorrect throw (like a girl)
• Coaches use the logic to motivate players
• you are playing like a bunch of girls.
• Gender logic serves to privilege boys
• Gender logic creates discrimination against girls
  in sport
• The gender logic has also spilled over into all
  social life
• politics
• business
• There is also race logic, class logic, and
  character logic

9
Sport and Family

• Sport has major impacts of family life
• Millions of children are involved in sport
• Parents organize, coach, attend games and drive
  children to events
• Changing patterns of youth involvement in sport
  result in changing patterns of family life

10
Sport and the Economy

• The economies of most countries are affected
  heavily by sport participation
• Tax dollars are used to contribute to the success
  of sport in communities and most countries
• Per capita income at the end of the 20th century
  was about 4000, but some athletes were making
  30 million per year in salary

11
Sport and Politics

• Sport is link to national pride
• Politicians promote themselves by association
  with sport teams and players
• Athletes are frequently elected to political
  office on the basis of athletic participation
• Jack Kemp
• Steve Largent

12
Sport and Education

• Sport teams in High Schools usually attract more
  attention than academic events
• Sport are the most prominent representative of
  colleges
• The success or failure of the institution is
  sometimes connected to success in sport

13
Sport and Religion

• Religious rituals are increasingly used in sport
  participation in the USA
• Large nondenominational organizations have been
  created for the purpose of converting young
  athletes to a religious ideology (Christian
  Athletes)
• Churches sponsor athletic events
• Churches alter schedules to accommodate sporting
  events

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Sociology of Sport Theory

• The basic tenets of Functionalism
• Social order is based on consensus and shared
  values
• Consensus about shared values is what holds
  society together, reducing conflict
• All social systems tend toward a state of balance
  and equilibrium

15
Functionalisms Main Social Concern

• Functionalism is concerned with how social
  systems (like Sport) contribute to the needs of
  the society
• How does sport contribute to the smooth operation
  of society?

16
Functionalism and the Study of Sport

• How does sport fit into the social life and
  contribute to social stability?
• How does sport participation influence personal
  development?

17
Functionalisms Perception of Sport

• Sport is a valuable social institution that
  benefits society and individuals
• Sport is a source of inspiration on both the
  personal and social levels of society

18
The Policy Implication of Functionalism

• Develop and expand sport programs that will
  promote traditional values
• Expand programs that promote positive character
  development
• Expand programs that contribute to the stability
  of society

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Criticisms of Functionalist Theory

• Overstates the positive consequences
• Overlooks the negative
• Ignores the unequal participation rates for all
  sports
• Ignores the social construction of sport in
  society
• Ignores the diversity in sport
• Ignores the extent to which sport promotes the
  interest of wealth and power

20
Conflict Theory and Sport

• The basic tenets of Conflict Theory are
• Social order is based on coercion and
  exploitation, not consensus
• Order is the result of economic power and the use
  of economic power to exploit labor
• Social class shapes the social structure of
  society and the social relationships in society

21
Conflict Theorys Major Social Concerns

• How is economic power distributed and used in
  society?
• What are the dynamics of social class relations?
• Who is privileged and exploited in class
  relations?

22
Conflict Theory and the Study of Sport

• How does sport reflect class relations?
• How is sport used to maintain the interests of
  those with power and wealth in society?
• How has the profit motive distorted sport?

23
Conflict Theory and the Perception of Sport

• Sport is a form of physical activity that is
  distorted by the needs of capital.
• Sport is an opiate that distracts attention away
  from the social problems created by economic
  exploitation.

24
The Policy Implication of Conflict Theory

• Eliminate the profit motive in sport
• Equalized participation through program expansion
  and participation
• Allow the participation in sport to be a source
  of physical well-being

25
Criticism of Conflict Theory

• Overstates the influence of economic interests
• Assumes that those with economic wealth shape
  sports to meet economic interests
• Ignores sport as a liberating experience

26
Critical Theory and Sport

• The basic tenets of Critical Theory are
• Social order is negotiated through struggles over
  ideology and power
• Social life is full of diversity, complexity, and
  contradictions

27
Critical Theorys Major Social Concerns

• How is cultural ideology produced, reproduced,
  and transformed?
• What are the conflicts and problems that affect
  the lives of those who lack power in society?

28
Critical Theory and Sport

• How are power relations reproduced and/or
  resisted in and through sport?
• Whose voices are and are not represented in the
  narratives and images that constitute sport?

29
Critical Theory and the Perception of Sport

• Sports are social constructions
• Sports are sites where culture is produced,
  reproduced, and transformed
• Sports are cultural practices that repress and/or
  empower people

30
The Policy Implication of Critical Theory

• Use sports as sites for challenging and
  transforming forms exploitation and oppression
• Increase the range and diversity of sport
  participation
• Challenge the voices and perspectives of those
  with power in sport

31
Criticisms of Critical Theory

• No way to identify forms of resistance
• No strategy of dealing with problems, conflicts,
  and injustice in sports

32
Feminist Theory and Sport

• The basic tenets of Feminist Theory are
• Social order is based primarily on the values,
  experiences, and interests of men with power
• Social life and social order are gendered

33
Feminist Theory and the Study of Sport

• How are sports gendered activities?
• How do sports reproduce the dominant gender logic
  of society?
• What are the strategies for resisting and
  transforming sport forms that privilege men?

34
The Policy Implications of Feminist Theory

• Use sports as sites for challenging and
  transforming oppressive forms of gender relations
• Expose and resist all expressions of homophobia
  and misogyny (hatred of women) in sport
• Transform sports to emphasize partnerships over
  competition and domination

35
Criticisms of Feminist Theory

• No way to identify forms of resistance
• No attention to gender and other categories of
  experience (i.e. childhood games and play)

36
Interaction Theory and Sport

• The basic tenet of Interaction Theory is
• Social order is created from the bottom up
  through intentional interaction

37
Interaction Theorys Major Social Concerns

• How are meanings, identities, and culture created
  through social interaction?
• How do people become involved in sports, become
  defined as athletes, and move out of sports into
  the rest of their lives?

38
Interaction Theory and the Perception of Sport

• Sports are forms of culture created through
  social interaction.
• Sport participation is grounded in the decisions
  made by people in connection with their
  identities and their relationships.

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The Policy Implications of Interaction Theory

• Allow individuals to shape sport to fit their
  social reality.
• Make sport organization more democratic and less
  hierarchical.
• Focus on the culture and organization of sport,
  rather than individual athletes when trying to
  control deviance in sport.

40
Criticisms of the Interaction Theory of Sport

• Fails to explain how the meaning of sport is
  connected to individual identity.
• Ignores issues of social power in sport.

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Sport in Society Studying the Past

• Issues Controversies

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General Historical Issues

• Physical activities and games have existed in
  nearly all cultures
• There are decreasing contrasts between the games
  that different people play today
• Decreasing contrasts are due to cultural
  diffusion and the power and influence of
  sponsoring corporations

43
Historical Cultural Variations

• Variations exist because
• Sports are cultural practices that can serve a
  variety of social purposes
• Sports are created within the constraints of the
  social world

44
Ancient Greece

• Sports were
• Grounded in mythology
• Linked with religious beliefs
• Characterized by
• Gender exclusion
• Frequent violence
• Absence of administrative structures
• Absence of measurements record keeping

45
Roman Contests and Games

• Emphasized spectacle, combat, and the power of
  political leaders
• Characterized by
• Diversions for the masses
• Exclusion of women as athletes
• Absence of quantification and record keeping

46
Medieval Europe

• Folk games played by peasants
• Tournaments played by elite for purposes of
  military readiness
• Gender restrictions grounded in religious dogma
  and beliefs
• Games lacked specialization and organization

47
Renaissance, Reformation, Enlightenment

• Increasing control over peasants
• Lives of many were restricted by labor
• Calvinist and Puritan beliefs did not promote any
  forms of leisure
• Games constituted diversions for people

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Characteristics of Play

• Individual effort is separate from others
• Action and behavior are free and spontaneous
• Uncertainty is a dominant feature
• Without fixed rules and no time limit on play

49
Characteristics of Game

• Competition is a key factor in involvement
• Outcome determined by physical or mental skill,
  but strategy and chance have a large role
• Time is not a relevant factor in involvement

50
Characteristics of Sport

• Activity is ritualized, with spontaneity
  diminished
• Formal rules, structure of roles, and time
  limitations
• Individual liability and responsibility for
  behavior and outcome
• Outcome extends beyond the bounds of the activity
• Individual time is required for practice and
  mastery

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Industrial RevolutionEarly Years

• Organized, competitive sports emerged, especially
  among elite
• Time and space for games were limited in urban
  areas
• Slavery and the exploitation of other workers
  limited widespread involvement in sports

52
Industrial RevolutionLater Years

• Growing emphasis on rationality and organization
  in society sports
• Most sports were segregated by social class
• Womens participation in sports was very limited

53
Elite, Competitive Sports in the US 1780-1920

• Sports often were used by wealthy to reinforce
  status distinctions
• The organization of sports favored the interests
  of those with power and wealth
• Increased participation opportunities for the
  working class, especially men

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Elite, Competitive Sports in the US 1780-1920
(cont)

• Sport participation comes to be linked with
  character development
• Organized sports were tied close to ideas about
• masculinity and femininity
• race and ethnicity
• age and disability

55
Sports History1920 to Today

• Entertainment, professionalization, and
  commercialism
• Masculinity and violence
• Nationalism and chauvinism
• Gender inequities and homophobia
• Racism and racial discrimination
• Class dynamics

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History Lessons the origins of modern struggles

• The modern struggles involve three dominant areas
  confrontation
• What is the meaning, purpose, and organization of
  sports?
• Struggles over meaning is soccer subversive?
• Struggles over purpose is winning the only
  thing?
• Struggles over organization can we play without
  a coach?
• Who plays and under what conditions?
• Struggles over involvement can everyone play?
• Struggles over conditions do I have to submit
  to a drug test to play?
• How and why sports are sponsored?
• Struggles over need do we really need funding?
• Struggles over sources what is better
  government or private finding?

57
Characteristics of High-profile, Organized,
Competitive Sports

• Specialization
• Rationalization
• Bureaucratization
• Quantification
• Records

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Sports and Socialization

• Who Plays
• and What Happens to Them?

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Socialization Definition

• The process of internalizing the norms and values
  of the group
• Internalization means taking norms and values
  from others and making those norms and values
  part of your self (identity)
• Occurs as we interact with others, without
  conscious thought
• Involves the formation of ideas about who we are
  and what is important in our lives

60
Socialization A Functionalist Approach

• Based on an internationalization model
  that focuses on
• The characteristics of those being socialized
• The people and institutions believed to do the
  socializing
• The specific outcomes of socialization, i.e., the
  types of learning that occurs

61
Socialization A Conflict Approach

• Based on an internalization model that focuses
  on
• How sports and sport participation divides people
  in the working class
• How people with few resources are denied
  opportunities to play sports
• The lack of rights among athletes
• How money and power are used to control sports
  and exploit others to maintain the status quo

62
Socialization Interactionist Models

• Utilize qualitative rather than quantitative
  research methods
• Goal is to obtain detailed descriptions of sport
  experiences
• Seek information on how people make decisions
  about sports in their lives
• Connect meanings given to sports and sport
  experiences with the larger social and cultural
  context

63
Becoming Involved Staying Involved in Sports

• Functionalist research indicates that sport
  participation is related to
• A persons abilities characteristics
• The influence of significant others
• The availability of opportunities to play
  experience success in sports

64
Becoming Involved Staying Involved in Sports

• Interactionist research indicates that sport
  participation is related to
• Ongoing processes in peoples lives
• Decision making processes in which decisions
• Change as social circumstances change
• Are never made once and for all time

65
Stevensons Findings(1999)

• Becoming an elite athlete involves
• The process of introduction and involvement
• The process of developing commitment

66
Donnelly Youngs Findings (1999)

• Becoming an athlete in a sport subculture
  involves
• Acquiring knowledge about the sport
• Associating with people in the sport
• Internalizing the norms of the sport
• Receiving recognition and acceptance from other
  athletes

67
Coakley Whites Findings (1999)

• Deciding to play sports depends on
• Ideas about sports connection to other interests
  and goals
• Desires to develop display competence
• Social and material support
• Memories of past experiences in sports
• General cultural images and messages about sports

68
Functionalist and Conflict Theory Research on
Dropping Out of Sports

• People dont drop out forever, nor do they cut
  all ties with sports
• Dropping out is tied to other changes and
  transitions in a persons life
• Dropping out is not just related to bad
  experiences
• Dropping out may cause problems among those who
• Have identities grounded totally in sports
• Lack social material resources

69
Coakleys Findings (1992)

• Burnout among elite adolescent athletes was most
  likely when
• High performance sports were organized so that
  athletes had little control over their lives
• Sport involvement interfered with accomplishing
  important developmental tasks

70
Koukouris Findings (1994)

• Ending or reducing sport participation was
  associated with
• The need to find a job and become independent
• Realistic assessments of sport skills and
  potential for future achievements
• Efforts to stay physically active and connected
  with sports

71
Wheelers Findings (1999)

• When competitive sport careers ended, the main
  challenges faced by athletes with disabilities
  were
• Reinvesting time and energy into other spheres of
  life
• Reconnecting with family members and friends
• Going back to school and getting on with
  occupational careers

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Summary Changing or Ending Competitive Sport
Participation

• Changes in participation are grounded in
  decision-making processes tied to peoples lives,
  life courses, and social worlds
• Identity issues and developmental issues are
  important
• Problems are most likely when sport participation
  has constricted a persons life

73
Do Sports Build Character?

• In many cultures people use a form of character
  logic that assumes that playing sports
  automatically builds positive traits

74
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75
Factors Often Overlooked in Research on Character
Building in Sports

• Different sports offer different experiences
• Selection processes in organized sports favor
  some characteristics over others
• Different people define sport experiences in
  different ways
• Meanings given to sport experiences often change
  over time

76
Power Performance Vs. Pleasure Participation
Sports

• Pleasure/Participation
• Emphasis on connections between people
• Ethic of expression, enjoyment, health
• Body source of pleasure
• Inclusion accom-modation of differences
• Democratic structures
• Compete with others

• Power/Performance
• Use power to push limits in pursuit of victories
• Excellence proved through winning
• Body tool and weapon
• Competence-based inclusion/exclusion
• Hierarchical structures
• Opponents enemies

77
Sport Participation Is Most Likely to Produce
Positive Effects When (I)

• New non-sport identities are formed
• Knowledge is gained about the world beyond sports
  
• Experiences go beyond sports
• New relationships are formed that go beyond sports

78
Sport Participation Is Most Likely to Produce
Positive Effects When (II)

• Lessons learned in sports are applied to
  situations outside of sports
• Participants are seen by others as total human
  beings, not just athletes
• General competence and responsibility are learned

79
General Summary

• If playing sports constricts or limits a persons
  life, expect negative socialization effects
• If playing sports expands or diversifies a
  persons life, expect positive socialization
  effects

80
Studies of Sport Experiences

• The voices of sport participants indicate that
  
• People define and give meaning to their sport
  experiences in connection with their social
  relationships
• Meanings given to sport experiences are grounded
  in cultural definitions about gender, race
  ethnicity, social class, sexuality, and other
  characteristics defined as socially important

81
Studies of the Social Worlds of Sports

• Sports can be sites for powerful forms of
  socialization
• Sport experiences can be understood only when
  placed in context
• The behaviors of athletes are understood best
  when studied in context

82
Studies of Socialization As a Community
Cultural Process

• Sports are sites for struggling over how we think
  and what we do
• Sports are sites where people create and learn
  stories they can use to make sense of the world
• Sports consist of vocabularies and images that
  influence ideology

83
Socialization and the Formation of Ideology

• Hegemony is the process of forming agreement
  about particular ways of viewing and making sense
  of the world
• Maintaining leadership and control by gaining the
  consent of other groups, including those being
  led
• Sports are important sites for hegemonic
  processes because they provide pleasurable
  experiences to so many people
• Corporate sponsors use sports to establish
  ideological outposts in peoples heads

84
What Socialization Research Doesnt Tell Us

• How socialization processes operate in the lives
  of people from various ethnic groups social
  classes
• The dynamics of sport participation careers among
  young children
• How people make participation decisions about
  different types of sports