Earth Science Classes

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Earth Science Classes

• Course Requirements, Syllabus, and Review Topics
  by unit

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Contact Information

• I can be reached by calling the school (718)
  463-3111
• My email is TeachPhysics_at_aol.com
• My website address is www.TeachPhysics.com
• My webpage on the school website is
  www.QueensAcademyHS.com

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Classroom Rules

• Be on time for class that means in your seat
  when the bell rings
• Be prepared for class with writing materials
  pen and paper
• No hats or do-rags in class
• No electronics in class including cell phones
• Be respectful of others
• Absolutely no food in class

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What is needed for this class?

• A pen or pencil and a notebook everyday.
• A copy of the Earth Science reference tables
  (supplied)
• These are available in languages besides English
  just ask
• A binder to hold handouts, class work and home
  works.
• You will also need an inexpensive calculator
  capable of basic arithmetic for homework
  assignments.

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Grades in Earth Science

• 35 Exams, quizzes,
• mid-terms and finals
• 25 Class participation
• 25 Homework
• 15 Laboratory Activities

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Grading policies

• Rubrics show student performance levels.
• To inform students of the expectations I have for
  them, and to make grading more objective, I use
  rubrics extensively in determining grades. This
  lets students see precisely what areas of a task
  they were successful on, and which areas need
  improvement. Rubrics are passed out to students
  before assignments so they know what is expected
  of them when they are given the task.

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Tests are worth 35

• These include quizzes, open book and take-home
  tests, and full-period exams, including the
  mid-term and final. Generally, to keep the values
  of these assessments proportional to their length
  and importance, I make each question worth 1
  point. In this way a short quiz with 10 questions
  is worth half as much as a test with 20
  questions. Full-period exams have some questions
  that require a more lengthy answer than a
  multiple-choice question and may have be worth
  two or three points while the entire exam is
  worth 40-50 points. To increase the significance
  of the mid-term and final, these are worth 100
  points each. Make-up tests are worth only partial
  credit unless the student presented a valid
  excuse for the absence. Make-up tests are worth
  65 of the original test value.

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Full-Period exams

• A full-period test is administered every 3 weeks.
• Tests are almost exclusively on Thursdays.
• Tests are returned the next day and we will go
  over the exam during class.

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Homework - 25 of your grade.

• Homework values are calculated in a similar
  manner as tests with each question being worth
  one point. In this way, more lengthy assignments
  have a higher value. In some cases there are
  questions worth more than one point because they
  involve a more lengthy answer, multiple parts, or
  a mathematical calculation.

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Class participation is 25

• This grade comes from attendance, class work, and
  participation in discussions. An attendance
  credit is given to each student. Students receive
  three points for coming to class on-time each
  day. This is reduced to one point if they enter
  the classroom after the bell rings, and zero
  points if they come in more than 20 minutes late.
  Students who present a valid excuse for their
  absence receive the three points for the day.
  Class work consists of reading and writing, and
  answering questions from the text, review book
  and worksheets. These are worth one point per
  question. Students who actively participate in
  class discussions are given additional points.

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Laboratory exercises- 15

• Lab exercises are graded on a pass-fail basis and
  are worth either ten points or zero points.
  Incomplete labs are worth 0 labs must be
  complete to earn credit. Make-up labs are worth
  only partial credit. If the missing lab is made
  up during the marking period in which we
  performed it, the value is eight points. In the
  following marking period it is worth seven
  points, afterwards, only six points. Students
  have to achieve a lab average of 65 and complete
  no less than 600 minutes of hands-on laboratory
  exercises to pass lab.

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What is Earth Science?

• Astronomy
• During this portion of the course, we will learn
  about our solar system, the Milky Way galaxy,
  stars, planets, moons, comets and asteroids. We
  will also talk about the beginning of the
  universe, an event referred to as the big bang.
  We will discuss methods of determining where we
  are in the universe using a coordinate system.
  This section also includes how and why the Earth
  rotates on its axis, revolves around the sun in
  its orbit, and the causes for the seasons.

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Energy

• The study of energy will include electromagnetic,
  potential, kinetic, and thermal energy. We will
  learn the difference between temperature and heat
  energy, and how energy is transferred and
  transformed. We will also discuss changes of
  state for matter, and how energy is involved.
• The Earths 2 sources of energy- internal and
  external will be discussed.

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Meteorology

• Meteorology includes factors that are related to
  weather and climate. Some of these include
  temperature, moisture, pressure, wind and
  precipitation. We will discuss weather patterns
  and their causes, global warming, and long term
  weather patterns known as climate. We will learn
  how meteorologists are able to predict and
  forecast the weather. This section also includes
  the water cycle.

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Geology

• Geology covers the different types of
  rocks-minerals, sedimentary, igneous and
  metamorphic. Geology explains the processes that
  create and wear down rocks. This section of the
  course will also cover earthquakes, tsunamis,
  volcanoes and plate tectonics. We will learn some
  of the characteristics of rocks and minerals, and
  identification techniques. The last section of
  geology deals with ways of determining the age of
  the Earth using fossils, radioactive isotopes,
  and a brief examination of the Earth's 4.6
  billion year history.

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Reviewing Earth science

• To help students review for classroom tests and
  the Regents exams, I pass out a review sheet
  during each of the 14 units of study.
• Vocabulary and concepts are presented.
• The following slides contain a copy of these
  review sheets.

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Topic 1- Introduction to Earth's Changing
Environment

• Universe-All matter, time, energy and space that
  exists.
• Observation-The perception of some aspect of the
  environment made with one or more of the human
  senses-sight, hearing, touch, taste, or smell
• Instrument- A human-made device that extends the
  human senses beyond their normal limits.
  instruments increase the range of observations
  e.g. microscope, telescope, and quantify (give a
  quantity to) an observation. Example it is not a
  small amount of water, it is 37ml of water.
• Inference- An inference is an interpretation of
  an observation. A mental process that proposes
  causes, conclusions or explanations for what has
  been observed. An inference cannot be tested. It
  is based on our observation and also our past
  experiences.
• Prediction- A type of inference about the
  conditions and behavior of the environment in the
  future. Predictions can be tested even though
  they may not be they must have the ability to
  be tested to be a prediction
• Classification- A group of similar observations
  and inferences, a taxonomy. Example- Birds
  flightless birds flightless, aquatic birds-
  from general to specific.

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• Measurement- A means of expressing an observation
  with greater accuracy or precision. Measurements
  include units. Basic units in the SI system
  include the meter for length, the kilogram for
  mass, and the second for time.
• Accuracy- How close a measurement comes to a true
  or accepted value. Example You measure the
  force of gravity to be 9.6 m/s2, since the
  accepted value is 9.806, your percent deviation
  is only 2. You are 98 accurate.
• Precision-The ability to repeat a measurement and
  obtain nearly the same results each time. This
  may depend on the calibration of the measuring
  instruments. Example You measure the force of
  gravity 3 times and get 8.9, 9.4 and 10.6 m/s2.
  These readings are not precise-none are close to
  each other. Another time you take 3 measurements
  and get 9.2, 9.1, and 9.3. These readings are
  not accurate, but they are precise. Lastly, you
  make 3 measurements and get 9.6, 9.8, and 9.7.
  These readings are both accurate and precise.
• Mass- The amount of matter in an object, the
  number and size of its atoms. The more atoms and
  the larger the atoms, the more mass. Mass does
  not vary by location as weight does. Example A
  student has a mass of 65kg. That is the mass of
  the student on Earth or the moon. The weight of
  the student on the moon would be 1/6 his/her
  weight on earth. Weight is the effect of gravity
  on a given mass.
• Volume- The amount of space that an object
  occupies is its volume. rectangular objects we
  multiply length, width and height. Irregular
  shaped objects we use the water displacement
  method with a graduated cylinder.

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• Percent deviation- No measurement is perfect,
  they contain some error. Percent deviation is
  the difference from the accepted value divided by
  the accepted value multiplied by 100. Example
  You measure the mass of an object with an
  accepted mass of 125gm, but you get 127.5gm. The
  percent deviation. is (127.5gm-125gm) / 125gm
  100 2.5gm/125gm1002 Find the formula on
  the front cover of the reference tables.
• Density- The concentration of matter in an object
  and the ratio of the objects mass to its volume.
  High mass with low volume equals high density.
  Low mass or high volume equals low density.
  Mass/ volume density units are kg/cubic meters.
  Formula on the ESRT
• Density is constant for objects made of a uniform
  material no matter what size piece you have.
  density is how things will sort themselves out
  always with the most dense object on the bottom
  and the least dense on top. Density is
  responsible for layering and motion.
• Rate of change- How much a measurable aspect
  changes over time is the rate of change.
  Example It is 60 degrees out when you wake up.
  Two hours later, it is 70 degrees. The rate of
  change is 70degrees-60 degrees) / 2 hours or 5
  degrees per hour. Formula on the ESRT
• Cyclic change- Changes that occur with a regular
  or predictable cycle. Ex. tides, night and day,
  the seasons, full moons, and many more.
• Natural hazard- A non-human situation that may
  threaten life. Ex Asteroids, blizzards,
  earthquakes, floods, tsunamis, hurricanes,
  thunderstorms, tornados, and volcanoes.
• Interface- A boundary between 2 regions with
  different properties. Example At the beach where
  the shore meets the water is the land-water
  interface.
• Dynamic equilibrium- The balancing of opposing
  forces. Example The level of Lake Erie remains
  nearly constant, it is in dynamic equilibrium
  because the water that flows out into the Niagara
  River is replaced by water that flows into it
  from the Detroit River.

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• Natural resources-Materials and energy sources
  found in the environment. Many natural resources
  especially fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas) are
  considered non-renewable. They will renew
  themselves, it just takes hundreds of millions of
  years!
• Pollution- A concentration of any substance or
  energy that adversely affects humans and the
  environment. Example An electric plant
  discharges water that it uses for cooling. The
  increased temperature of the water around the
  plant kills fish and plant life around the plant.
• Amount of error The difference between your
  measurement and the accepted value, always a
  positive number (absolute value), contains units.
  Example I measure 78 cm but the actual length is
  80 cm. the amount of error is 2 cm.
• Scientific notation a way of expressing numbers
  without writing a lot of zeros. the zeros are
  replaced with a times 10 to some power, the power
  is how many zeros were replaced. Example 78,000
  7.8 x 104 In scientific notation, only a single
  digit is ever written on the left side of the
  decimal place.
• Average or mean a number which is between the
  highest and lowest number in a list. Found by
  adding up the numbers in the list and dividing by
  how many numbers are in the list.
• Graphing- dependent variable, the thing that
  changes as the experiment progresses always goes
  on the y-axis. Independent variable, always on
  the x-axis. Graphs include ALL of the following
  a title, a label on each axis including units
  (Note the units are not the label), a layout
  that is linear and uses 90 of the graph paper
  (not bunched up in a corner or running off the
  paper), a line-of-best-fit that shows the trend
  of the data (not necessarily a connect the dots
  line)

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Topic 2-Measuring Earth

• Atmosphere- The layer of gasses that surrounds
  Earth above the oceans and land. Contains for
  sub-layers. from the ground going up
  troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, and
  thermosphere. The ozone layer is in the
  stratosphere and protects life on Earth from
  harmful UV radiation. As altitude increases in
  the atmosphere, temperature both increases and
  decreases as various layers either absorb
  radiation or do not absorb radiation. Most of the
  atmosphere (78) is composed of nitrogen gas, not
  oxygen.
• Coordinate system- A system for determining the
  coordinates of a point. Maps use latitude and
  longitude to accomplish this.
• Contour lines- These are isolines that connect
  points of equal elevation.
• Contour interval the vertical distance between
  contour lines on a topographic map.
• Crust- The upper portion or top layer of the
  lithosphere.
• Degrees parts of a circle. a complete circle
  has 360 degrees. Degrees are broken into 60
  smaller parts called minutes and minutes each
  contain 60 equal parts called seconds. Thus a
  latitude or longitude may be written as 45 31
  58 indicating 45 degrees, 31 minutes, 58
  seconds.
• Earths interior- Everything between Earths
  crust and the center of the earth. From the
  center of the Earth to the crust these layers
  are inner core, outer core, stiffer mantle,
  asthenosphere( plastic mantle), lithosphere and
  crust.

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• Elevation- The vertical distance or height above
  sea level. This is shown with different colors on
  a relief map and with contour lines on a
  topographic map.
• Equator- The halfway point between the north and
  south poles. The reference point for measuring
  latitude has a latitude of 0
• Field- Any region of space that has some
  measurable value of a given quantity at every
  point. Example Magnetic or gravitational
  fields.
• Gradient- The rate of change from place to place
  within a field. The closer the isolines the
  higher the gradient, the faster or the steeper
  the change. Examples Close isobars indicate
  strong changes in pressure, thus windy
  conditions close contour lines indicate dramatic
  changes in elevation, thus steep terrain.
• Hydrosphere- The layer of liquid water between
  the atmosphere and the Earths interior. Most of
  the hydrosphere (66) is composed of hydrogen,
  hence the name.
• Isolines- Lines that connect equal points of
  field values. Examples Isotherms connect points
  of equal temperature Isobars connect points of
  equal pressure.

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• Latitude- The angular distance north or south of
  the equator. A number between 0 (at the equator)
  and 90 (at the poles). Divides the Earth into a
  northern and southern hemisphere. Latitude always
  includes an N or S to indicate the hemisphere.
  The hemisphere can be determined on a map by
  checking to see in which direction the latitude
  increases. If latitude numbers increase going to
  the north, it is a map of the northern
  hemisphere. If numbers increase to the south- it
  is in the southern hemisphere. If your latitude
  is increasing, you are moving away from the
  equator and towards either pole.
• Lithosphere- The layer of rock that forms the
  solid outer shell of the Earths interior.
• Longitude- An angular distance east or west of
  the prime meridian. A number between 0-180.
  Always includes a designation E or W to indicate
  the hemisphere. The hemisphere can be determined
  by checking to see in which direction the numbers
  are increasing. Whichever way longitude increases
  indicates the hemisphere the map is depicting.
• Meridian (of longitude) - A semi-circle on the
  surface of the Earth that connects the north and
  south poles. All meridians are the same length
  and run from pole to pole.
• Model- A model is a way of representing the
  properties of an object or system. Example a
  globe.
• Pauses- The boundaries or interfaces of Earths
  atmosphere.

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• Prime meridian- A reference or starting point to
  measure angular distance east or west. The prime
  meridian passes through Greenwich, England
  because the English were the first navigators to
  establish the coordinate system. The prime
  meridian has a longitude of 0
• Profile- The side view of an areas landscape a
  cut-a-way view
• Scale A relation between distance on a map and
  distance in the real world. Shown as a ratio, or
  a statement ( 1 inch equals 40 miles) or a s a
  graphic line that indicates the distances.
• Topographic map- A model or contour map that
  indicates changes in elevation of the Earths
  surface.

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Topic 3-Earth in the Universe

• Celestial Object-Any object outside Earths
  atmosphere
• Universe-All time, matter, energy and space
• The Big Bang Theory-The theory that the universe
  started about 13 billion years ago with an
  incredible explosion of all matter and energy
  from an infinitesimally small point.
• Doppler Effect- The effect of wavelengths to be
  stretched longer when an object is traveling away
  from you, and compressed when the object is
  traveling towards you. With light the expansion
  (longer wavelengths) appear red, and the
  compression () shorter wavelength) appear blue
• Red Shift- The stretching of wavelengths of light
  as objects travel away from a viewer
• Galaxy-A collection of hundreds of billions of
  stars and gas and dust clouds in one region of
  space.
• Milky Way Galaxy-The spiral-shaped galaxy to
  which our solar system belongs.
• Star- a large ball of hydrogen and helium gas
  that produces energy through nuclear fusion.
• Nuclear Fusion-The process of combining protons
  and neutrons to form larger nuclei and release
  energy.
• Luminosity- How bright a star would be compared
  to the sun if it was at the same distance as the
  sun.
• Solar System-A collection of nine planets, 141
  moons, various asteroids, meteoroids, comets and
  dust that all orbit the sun
• As of September 2004
• Asteroid- A solid, rocky, usually metallic body
  that orbits the sun. Asteroids have various
  shapes and are smaller than planets. Most orbit
  in a belt between Mars and Jupiter.

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• Moon- The only natural satellite of the Earth
• Comet- A mostly solid object with ice and water
  which evaporates as it approaches the sun leaving
  long and highly visible tails. Most comets are in
  long, highly elliptical orbits and take many
  years to complete one orbit of the sun.
• Meteors (Meteorites) - Small solid, rocky
  fragments that may enter the atmosphere. Meteors
  burn up, meteorites strike the earth.
• Impact Crater- The crater left from an impact
  from an asteroid, comet or large meteorite
• Impact Event- The collision of an asteroid, comet
  or other celestial object with another celestial
  object.
• Terrestrial Planets- Small diameter, high density
  rocky worlds closest to the sun.
• Jovian Planets- The gas giants-low in density,
  high mass due to large size, large diameters.
• Rotation- the spin on an imaginary axis that runs
  through the center of a planet.
• Revolution- The orbit of a celestial object
  around the sun.
• Ellipse- A conic section shaped like an oval with
  tow points called foci. Bodies in the solar
  system orbit the sun in elliptical orbits with
  the sun at one of the 2 focus points

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• Foci (focus) - The fixed points in an ellipse.
  The sum of the distance between any point on the
  ellipse and the 2 foci is a constant.
• Eccentricity- how oval or circular the ellipse
  is. Eccentricity equals the distance between the
  foci divided by the length of the major axis.
  Eccentricity must be between 0 and 1. O is a
  perfect circle, 1 is highly elliptical.
• Inertia-The resistance to change in motion that
  any object has. Inertia is directly proportional
  to mass.
• Gravitation- The force of attraction between any
  two objects. Gravity id directly proportional to
  the masses of the objects and inversely
  proportional to the square of the distance
  between them.

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Topic 4 -Motions of the earth, Moon and Sun

• Axis (of rotation)-Imaginary axis which planets
  rotate about.
• Constellation-A group of stars that form a
  pattern and mark a region of the galaxy.
• Coriolis Effect- The effect of fluids to turn to
  the right in the northern hemisphere and the left
  in the southern hemisphere
• Eclipse- When a celestial object comes into the
  shadow of another celestial object it is called
  an eclipse.
• Foucault Pendulum-a freely swinging pendulum. Due
  to inertia it swings in the same direction as the
  earth turns. The pendulum appears to turn but the
  earth is turning. Provides evidence of earths
  rotation.

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• Geocentric Model- Earth at the center of the
  solar system/ universe
• Heliocentric Model-The sun at the center of the
  solar system
• Local time-time based on earths rotation and the
  position of the sun
• Phases (of the moon)-The varying amounts of the
  lighted portion of the moon
• Tides-Cyclic rise and fall of oceans (and some
  large lakes) due to earths rotation and the
  gravitational effect of the moon.
• Time Zones-A way to solve the problem of local
  times being different everywhere.

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Topic 5-Energy in Earth's Processes

• Barrier interactions When energy interacts with
  something in the environment, the energy may be
  reflected, absorbed or transmitted through the
  substance, but it is always conserved.
• Calorie- A unit of energy most usually associated
  with food. The quantity of heat required to raise
  one gram of water one degree Celsius.
• Condensation- The changing of a gas to a liquid,
  requires the gas to release heat energy.
• Conduction-The transfer of heat energy between
  objects that are in direct contact.
• Convection- The transfer of heat energy by the
  circulation of fluids. Fluids include anything
  that can flow, not just liquids. Hotter fluids
  have lower densities and rise, while cooler
  fluids have higher densities and sink. Convection
  is the primary method for heat distribution in
  the mantle, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and suns
  interior. These circulating fluids form
  convection currents, also called convection
  cells.
• Crystallization- The process of changing a liquid
  to a solid with a specific arrangement pattern of
  the atoms or molecules they form crystals.
  Requires a release of energy.

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• Electromagnetic energy- (EM) -A type of energy
  that is radiated in the form of electromagnetic
  waves. They are distinguished from each other by
  their wavelengths. In order of increasing
  wavelength, they are radio waves, microwaves,
  infrared (heat), visible light, ultraviolet,
  x-rays and gamma rays. Waves transmit energy, so
  the closer the waves (shorter wavelength) the
  more intense is the radiation.
• Electromagnetic spectrum-The spectrum of all
  electromagnetic waves. Listed in the ESRT in
  order of increasing wavelength.
• Energy- The ability to do work. There are many
  forms of energy, and in any interaction energy is
  always conserved. It cannot be created or
  destroyed, but it can change form. Most energy
  ends up as heat energy, a form of energy
  pollution.
• Heat energy-Infrared EM energy, which travels
  from areas of higher temperature to areas of
  lower temperature.
• Kinetic energy The energy of any moving object.
  faster speed equals more kinetic energy.
• Mechanical energy- The energy of an object not
  related to atoms and molecules. Mechanical energy
  is the sum of potential and kinetic energy.

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• Melt The process of changing a solid to a
  liquid by the absorption of energy.
• Nuclear decay- The process of an unstable nucleus
  breaking apart and releasing sub-atomic particles
  and energy.
• Potential energy The energy from position. A
  roller coaster at the top of a hill has a great
  deal of potential energy. as it coasts down the
  track the potential energy is changed to kinetic
  energy (speed) and heat energy through friction.
• Radiation- The transfer of heat energy through
  the EM spectrum, usually refers to the infrared
  portion.
• Refraction The bending of light waves as they
  travel from one material to another material with
  a different density.
• Solidification- The process of changing a liquid
  to a solid, (freezing) requires a release of
  energy.
• Specific heat-The quantity of heat required to
  raise one gram of a particular substance one
  degree Celsius.

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• Sublimation The term that refers to either a
  change from a gas to a solid (frost) (requires
  energy to be released) or the change from a solid
  to a gas (requires energy to be absorbed).
• Surface characteristics Determines what will
  happen when energy interacts. Light colors
  increase reflection and decrease absorption,
  while dark colors are good absorbers. Texture
  also affects how the energy is reflected or
  absorbed.
• Temperature- The measure of the average kinetic
  energy of the particles in a substance.
• Texture- The roughness or smoothness of a
  surface. Texture affects the amount of EM
  radiation absorbed or reflected. Smooth textures
  are better at reflection than absorption, while
  rough textures are better at absorption than at
  reflection.
• Vaporization-The changing of a liquid to a gas
  requires the liquid to absorb energy. Also
  referred to as evaporation.
• Wavelength- The length of one wave from crest to
  crest. As wavelengths increase, the amount of
  energy being transported decreases. When waves
  are close together (short wavelengths) more
  energy is being transmitted.

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Topic 6- Insolation and the Seasons

• Angle of incidence-The incoming angle of the
  suns rays (insolation). The higher the angle,
  the greater the intensity of the radiation. Low
  angles, such as at sunrise and sunset spread the
  radiation over a much larger surface area, and so
  its intensity is much less. The amount of
  radiation you are receiving can be determined by
  looking at the size of your shadow. A small
  shadow equals a high intensity, a long shadow
  equals a low intensity. The angle of incidence
  varies with 1) the time of day- its greatest at
  solar noon, 2) latitude its greatest in the
  tropics, and 3) seasons its greatest in the
  summer.
• Deforestation-The process of cutting entire
  forests down to clear land for human uses. This
  process alters the balance of nature, influences
  global warming and increases the extinction of
  species.
• Equinox The first day of spring and fall is
  called an equinox. It means the Earth experiences
  equal periods of day and night (12 hours). These
  days are March 21 and September 21.

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• El Niño- A warming event in the Pacific Ocean
  surface temperatures which disrupt weather on a
  global scale producing major storms and
  hurricanes.
• Global warming-The process of raising the
  temperature of the Earth by trapping large
  quantities of greenhouse gasses in the
  atmosphere, primarily through burning fossil
  fuels.
• Greenhouse gasses-Gasses that absorb large
  quantities of infrared radiation and trap the
  heat in the atmosphere are called greenhouse
  gasses. These gases are primarily carbon dioxide,
  water vapor, and methane.

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• Heat budget-The dynamic equilibrium between the
  total amount of heat that an object receives and
  the amount that it radiates.
• Ice ages-A shift in the heat budget which results
  in more energy being released than absorbed.
• Insolation- INcoming SOLar radiATION is
  IN-SOL-ATION. Radiation from the sun.
• Land and Water heating differences Land always
  heats up faster and cools down faster than water
  does. This is because of 4 factors 1) Water has
  a very high specific heat- it takes a great deal
  of energy to change its temperature, 2) change of
  state water can change from a liquid to a gas,
  land does not change states. Energy that is used
  to change the state of matter is not available to
  raise its temperature. This energy becomes latent
  heat, a form of potential energy. 3) transparency
  water is very transparent to radiation, land is
  not at all transparent to radiation. When light
  travels to the bottom of a body of water, it is
  heating up all of that water. The land stops the
  light at its surface and heats up much more
  quickly. 4) Convection currents distribute heat
  in the water. Land is not fluid and has no
  convection currents so all the heat remains at
  the land surface, while it is distributed
  throughout the water.
• Ozone- A type of oxygen in which three molecule
  of oxygen join together. The ozone layer exists
  in the upper atmosphere (stratosphere) and is
  vital to absorption of damaging ultraviolet
  radiation, which causes skin cancer.

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• Seasons A change of weather that primarily
  affects the mid latitudes (23½- 66½) Latitudes
  less than 23are mostly warm all year round,
  while latitudes near the poles (above 66) are
  mostly cold all year. The change of seasons is
  caused by three factors. 1) The Earths tilted
  axis at 23½, 2) the fact the Earth revolves
  around the sun once a year, and 3) parallelism
  the Earths axis always points in the same
  direction in space. The Earths orbit around the
  sun is not a perfect circle, it is an oval shape
  called an ellipse. At certain times of the year
  the Earth is closer to or farther from the sun,
  but THE CHANGING DISTANCE DOES NOT CAUSE SEASONS!
  In the northern hemisphere, we are closest to the
  sun in winter, and farthest away in summer. The
  northern and southern hemispheres experience the
  opposite seasons. When we are having winter they
  are having summer, and vice-versa.
• Solstice The first day of winter and the first
  day of summer is called a solstice. On these days
  either the north pole or the south pole is
  pointed most directly at the sun. The polar
  regions (above 66½ latitude experience either 3
  months of daylight ( the sun never sets) during
  the summer, or 3 months of night (the sun never
  rises) during winter.
• Sunspot- A darker region of the suns surface
  where the temperature is lower than the
  surrounding areas. Caused by magnetic storms on
  the suns surface and releases massive amounts of
  solar particles (solar storms)
• Transpiration- The process by which living
  organisms (plants and animals) release water
  vapor into the atmosphere.

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• Factors affecting the amount of insolation an
  area receives
• 1. Angle of incidence
• When the angle of incidence is closest to 90 the
  insolation intensity is the greatest.
• By day-
• The angle of incidence is greater at noon than
  any other time of the day.
• The angle of incidence is the lowest at sunrise
  and sunset.
• By season-
• The angle of incidence is the greatest in the
  summer and the lowest in the winter.
• For NYS, about 72 in summer at noon and 25 in
  winter at noon
• 2. Cloud cover
• When the sky is mostly cloudy, there is more
  insolation reflected back into space.
• When skies are clear, more insolation reaches the
  surface.
• 3. Earth's shape and latitude
• Because the Earth is a sphere, the latitudes
  receiving the greatest insolation are those
  closest to the equator. Polar regions receive the
  least amount of insolation because the angle of
  incidence is lowest at these latitudes. The size
  of your shadow is an indicator of the intensity
  of insolation.
• Small shadow high intensity. Large/long
  shadow low intensity
• 4. Variation in duration of insolation
• Because of the Earth's tilted axis, latitudes
  experiencing summer not only receive a higher
  angle of incident insolation, but a longer
  duration as well. 15 hours. Latitudes
  experiencing winter receive the shortest duration
  of insolation., about 9 hours

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• 5. Time delay in maximum and minimum
  temperatures.
• Because water has such a high specific heat and
  covers so much of the surface of Earth, the
  seasonal high and low temperatures lag behind the
  seasonal peak of insolation by about a month.
• Water is absorbing or releasing its stored heat
  (latent heat)
• The highest temperatures of the summer occur in
  July/August even though the longest day is June
  21. The coldest temperatures usually occur in
  January/February even though the shortest day is
  December 21. The same time delay occurs on a
  daily basis-
• While the angle of incidence is highest at noon,
  the hottest time of the day is usually late in
  the afternoon. The coolest part of the day is
  usually right around sunrise, and is after
  sunrise on many days.
• 6. Long term changes in climate
• These are a result of changes in the amount of
  insolation absorbed or emitted- called the heat
  budget. Earth's heat budget has shifted in the
  past. There have been periods of ice ages and
  warm periods. El Nino and la Nina-between every
  2-10 years-not well understood by scientists.
  Global warming-some scientists believe it is
  caused by the massive burning of fossil fuels,
  others disagree. The role of sunspot activity and
  solar cycles effects on Earth's climate is also
  not well understood. The slight change of the
  tilt of Earth's axis (precession) and
  eccentricity of the elliptical orbit are
  additional factors not well understood. Volcanic
  eruptions also affect the amount of insolation
  received-ash clouds block sun from reaching the
  surface.
• 7. Color and texture light colors reflect, dark
  colors absorb. Rough surfaces absorb, smooth
  surfaces reflect.

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Topic 7-Weather

• Air mass- A large body of air in the troposphere
  with similar characteristics
• Air pressure gradient- The difference in air
  pressure over a given distance. Close isobars
  indicate high pressure gradient and windy
  conditions.
• Anemometer- An instrument used to measure wind
  speed.
• Atmospheric, barometric, or air pressure- The
  pressure of the air in a given location. Standard
  pressure of 1 atmosphere equals 1 bar, or 14.7
  lbs. /sq. in. or 29.92 of mercury, or 33 of
  water.
• Atmospheric transparency- How transparent the
  atmosphere is to insolation. Less transparent,
  due to high cloud cover or pollution, means more
  sunlight is reflected or absorbed, and less
  reaches the ground.
• Barometer- An instrument used to measure air
  pressure.
• Cloud cover- The fraction of the sky that is
  covered by clouds.
• Cold front- Boundary of an advancing cold air
  mass. The heavier, underlying cold air pushes
  forward like a wedge.
• Cyclone- Low pressure storms

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• Cyclonic storm- Low pressure storms in
  mid-latitudes, and Indian Ocean also called
  hurricanes in the Atlantic, and typhoons in the
  Pacific.
• Dew point- The temperature at which relative
  humidity reaches 100.
• Front- Where two air masses of different
  characteristics meet.
• Humidity- Amount of water vapor in the
  atmosphere. warm air can hold more vapor than
  cold air can.
• Isobar- Isolines of equal pressure are isobars.
• Jet stream- Bands of easterly moving air at the
  top of the troposphere blowing 200 MPH or more.
• Monsoons- Regular and severe weather changes
  caused by shifting winds.
• Occluded front- Boundary of opposing wedges of
  cold air masses formed when a cold front forces
  warm air up, off the ground.

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• Planetary wind belts- Winds moving in
  predominantly one direction. They are due to
  winds blowing from high pressure to low pressure
  areas and the spin of the Earth (Coriolis
  Effect).
• Polar front- An ever changing boundary in
  mid-latitudes between cold air masses from the
  poles and warm air masses from the equator.
• Precipitation- The falling of liquid or solid
  water from clouds.
• Probability- Chance of occurrence of certain
  types of weather. These are predictions based on
  weather models, and past performance.
• Psychrometer- An instrument used to measure
  relative humidity. (A wet-bulb and dry-bulb
  thermometers and a table)
• Radar- Reflected electro-magnetic energy that is
  used to give a 3-dimensional view of weather.
  Acronym for RAdio Detection And Ranging
• Relative humidity- The ratio of the amount of
  water vapor in the air to the maximum amount that
  could be dissolved in the air.

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• Stationary front- Two masses of air with
  different characteristics that remain in the same
  position.
• Station model- Symbols and a circle used to
  indicate weather variables for a specific site.
• Troposphere- The part of the earths atmosphere
  directly above the surface. Most weather occurs
  in the troposphere.
• Visibility- How far you can see along Earths
  surface in miles.
• Warm front- Boundary of an advancing warm air
  mass. Because colder air is heavier, warm air is
  forced to rise as it advances.
• Water vapor- Gaseous water in the atmosphere.
• Weather variables- temperature, pressure, wind,
  moisture, cloud cover, precipitation, and storms.

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Topic 8 -Water and Climate

• Capillarity-The attractive force between water
  molecules that can oppose the force of gravity.
  Capillarity is greater when the tube diameter is
  smaller.
• Climate-The weather conditions at a location over
  a long period of time
• Ground water-The sub-surface water stored below
  the water table is ground water. 2/3 of all
  non-frozen freshwater on earth is ground water.
• Hydrologic cycle- See water cycle
• Infiltrate-As water slowly moves through open
  spaces in the ground it is said to infiltrate the
  ground
• Permeability- The ability of a material to allow
  fluids to pass through is its permeability. The
  permeability rate is the speed at which fluids
  can infiltrate the ground.
• Porosity- The amount of open space between
  particles of dirt and sediment is the porosity of
  the soil.
• Prevailing winds- The direction from which the
  wind usually blows at a given location
• Runoff-As precipitation flows over the surface of
  the earth back towards the oceans it is described
  as runoff.

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• Seep-The process of water infiltrating the ground
• Sorted- Sediments are said to be sorted when they
  are close in size to one another.
• Stream discharge- The volume of water that a
  stream discharges over a given period of time is
  the stream discharge.
• Unsorted- When sediments are mixed sizes they are
  said to be unsorted. Usually from glacial
  deposition.
• Urbanization- The development of large areas,
  including road building, parking lots and
  buildings. Urbanization decreases infiltration
  and increases runoff.
• Water cycle- A model used to show the movement
  and phase changes of water at or near Earths
  surface.
• Water retention- Precipitation can be stored or
  retained on the land as ice or snow, or on the
  leaves of plants and trees
• Water table- The interface between the area of
  saturation and zone or aeration is the water
  table. Ground water is at and below the water
  table.

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Topic 9 - Weathering and Erosion

• Abrasion-Rocks scraping against other rocks
  primarily through glacial erosion produces
  abrasions. Abrasion has the effect or rounding
  sharp pieces of rock.
• Breaking wave-When a wave reaches shallow water
  it is unable to support its height and breaks
  in a forward rush of water.
• Chemical weathering-This occurs when carbon
  dioxide or sulfur dioxide dissolve in water and
  then dissolve rocks. Plant roots may also secrete
  mild acids that contribute to chemical
  weathering.
• Delta-A delta is a depositional feature formed by
  deposition of sediments carried by a stream over
  a long period oft time.
• Erosion-The transportation of sediments through
  running water, glacial ice, wind, waves, and mass
  movements is the process of erosion. Erosion
  almost always moves particles to lower
  elevations, wind is the exception.
• Finger Lakes-These are long narrow lakes in
  U-shaped valleys, left behind as glaciers melt.
  They are usually dammed at one end with a pile of
  loose debris.
• Flood plain-During times of floods when a stream
  overflows its banks it may flow out onto a wider
  valley and deposit sediments in the flood plain.

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• Glacial groove-The gouges left behind by a
  glacier are glacial grooves.
• Glacier-A naturally formed mass of ice which
  accumulates over long periods of time. Glaciers
  can form in mountains and move down a valley,
  (valley glacier) or cover entire continents
  (Greenland, Antarctica). These are continental
  glaciers.
• Mass movement- Rock slides, mud or debris flows,
  creep and slump are examples of mass movements.
  The primary force causing mass movements is
  gravity.
• Meander-A physical feature carved by a river.
  Meanders are snake like bends and curves in a
  river or stream.
• Physical weathering- Frost action, freeze-thaw
  cycles, plant root growth, and abrupt temperature
  changes can cause rocks to crack and breakdown
  into smaller pieces.
• Sandbar-In the zone of breaking waves, sediments
  deposited can form a barrier parallel to the
  shore called a sandbar.
• Sandblasting-This occurs when winds pick up
  sediments and blow them against rocks causing
  abrasion.

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• Sediments- Particles of rock which have been
  broken down into small pieces by the process of
  weathering.
• Stream-When running water is confined to a narrow
  channel a stream is formed.
• Stream channel shape- The shape of the bedrock or
  loose materials that confine a stream is the
  stream channel shape.
• Tributary- A smaller stream that joins a larger
  stream is a tributary.
• U-shaped valley-The shape of a valley carved by
  glaciers, the sides are cut away by the ice
  leaving the U shape.
• V-shaped valley-The shape of a valley carved by a
  stream or river is V-shaped because the stream
  cuts deeper over time.
• Watershed-The area of land drained by a stream or
  series of streams is a watershed.
• Weathering-The chemical and physical breakdown of
  rocks at or near Earths surface.

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Topic 10-Deposition

• Barrier Island-An island created by the
  deposition of sand offshore, and held in place by
  growing vegetation.
• Deposition-The process by which sediments are
  released, settled from, or dropped by an
  erosional system.
• Drumlin-Streamlined, oval shaped moraines that
  look like an inverted spoon.
• Kettle Lake-A lake formed by the depression due
  to the weight of a glacier and the melting of the
  ice.
• Moraine-The unsorted sheets or piles deposited on
  the sides or at the end of a glacier.
• Outwash Plain- The running water that moves away
  from the terminus of a glacier may move out in a
  fan-shaped pattern that is called an outwash
  plain.

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• Sand dune-A large pile of sand deposited by wind.
  Sand dunes have a steep gradient on the windward
  side (side facing the wind), and a gradual slope
  on the leeward side (side facing away from the
  wind.) This feature of sand dunes can be used to
  determine the direction from which the wind
  blows. Sand dunes migrate as sand on the
  windward side is blown around to the leeward
  side.
• Sorted sediments-Sediments that are similar in
  size and shape, usually deposited by running
  water or wind.
• Unsorted sediments-Sediments that are very
  different in size and shape, usually the result
  of glacial deposition or mass movements.

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Topic 11- Earths Materials

• Bioclastic sedimentary rocks-Rocks that were
  formed from living organisms, such as shells
  forming calcium carbonate limestone rocks.
• Chemical sedimentary rocks-Rocks formed from the
  chemical precipitation of dissolved chemicals,
  usually salts.
• Clastic sedimentary rocks-Rocks that are largely
  composed of solid sediments such as sand in
  sandstone.
• Cleavage-The tendency of a rock to break along
  lines of weaker atomic bonds forming smooth
  planes, and specific angles is its cleavage.
• Contact metamorphism- The metamorphism that
  occurs when older rocks come into direct contact
  with hot magma.
• Crystal shape-The outward geometric shape of a
  mineral is determined by the crystal shape.
• Crystal structure-The specific arrangement of
  atoms in a material.
• Extrusive igneous rocks-Igneous rocks that form
  on the surface of the Earth- exposed to the
  atmosphere.
• Foliation-Large mineral crystals often in layers.

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• Fossil-Evidence of former life preserved in rock.
• Fracture-If a material lacks specific lines of
  weaker atomic bonds, it will break with uneven
  surfaces. This is called fracture.
• Hardness-The resistance a rock offers to being
  scratched is its hardness. A rock that can
  scratch another is harder than the rock that was
  scratched.
• Igneous rocks- Rocks formed when liquid magma or
  lava cools and hardens.
• Inorganic-Not composed of anything that is or was
  alive.
• Intrusive igneous rocks-Igneous rocks that form
  beneath the Earths surface.
• Luster-The shine from an unpolished rock, or the
  way it reflects light is its luster
• Magma-Liquid rock beneath Earths surface- not
  exposed to the atmosphere.
• Metamorphic rocks-Rocks that have been changed
  under temperature and pressure from sedimentary
  or igneous rocks.
• Metamorphism-The process through heat and
  pressure of changing a rocks composition and
  mineral structure.

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• Mineral- A naturally occurring, inorganic,
  crystalline solid, with a definite chemical
  composition
• Mineral crystal-Individual grains of minerals.
• Mineral resources-Earths resources including
  minerals, rocks and fossil fuels.
• Organic-Refers to anything that is or was alive.
  Generally, organic materials are carbon based.
• Precipitation of minerals-The result of
  evaporation, saturation with dissolved minerals,
  or changes in temperature.
• Regional metamorphism-Metamorphism that occurs in
  a large area or region.
• Rock cycle- A model used to show the various
  stages of rocks from sedimentary to metamorphic
  or igneous.
• Sedimentary rocks-Rocks that form from an
  accumulation of sediments.
• Streak-The color of finely crushed residue or
  powder of the mineral
• Texture-The size, shape and arrangement of the
  materials in a rock are its texture.

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Topic 12- Earths dynamic crust and Interior

• Asthenosphere-A portion of the upper mantle just
  below the crust. This is a plastic layer that the
  plates move around on.
• Continental crust-Crust at the continents-thicker
  than oceanic crust. Primarily composed of less
  dense granite.
• Convergent plate boundary-A boundary where two
  plates move together in a head-on collision.
  These cause mountain building if both plates are
  continental, and subduction if one plate is
  oceanic.
• Crust-The top part of the lithosphere.
• Divergent plate boundary-A boundary where two
  plates are moving apart from one another.
• Earthquake-A natural, rapid vibration of the
  lithosphere. Usually caused by plate motions.
• Epicenter-The location on the surface of the land
  or water directly above the location where an
  earthquake originated.

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• Faulted-Rock layers that are offset from the
  position in which they formed. Faulting can be
  vertical or horizontal.
• Folded- Rock layers that are bent or tilted.
• Hot spot-A place where the crust is especially
  thin. There may be geothermal or volcanic
  activity associated with hot spots.
• Inner core-The central core of the earth,
  composed of solid iron and nickel.
• Island arc-A region of islands created by
  volcanoes from a hot spot.
• Lithosphere-The layer of rock that forms the
  outer layer of Earths shell at the top of
  Earths interior is the lithosphere.
• Mantle-The thickest part of earths interior,
  located below the lithosphere. The mantle
  contains 80 of earths volume and is separated
  from the crust by a layer called the Moho.
• Mid-ocean ridge-A region where plates diverge and
  new oceanic crust is formed.
• Moho-A thin layer that separates the crust from
  the mantle.

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• Oceanic crust-Thinner crust portions beneath the
  oceans primarily composed of higher density
  basalt.
• Ocean trench-In regions of subduction, trenches
  are formed which are the deepest regions of
  earths oceans.
• Original horizontality- The concept that
  sediments and lava flows occur originally in
  horizontal layers.
• Outer core-The fluid portion of earths core,
  mostly liquid iron and nickel
• Plate tectonic theory-The theory that the plates
  move around at the surface of the Earth.
• P-waves-The primary earthquake wave. P-waves
  cause particle vibration in the direction the
  wave travels. (Longitudinal waves)
• Subduction-The process of a more dense plate
  sinking beneath a less dense plate.
• S-waves-Secondary waves cause particle vibration
  at right angles to the direction of wave
  propagation. (Transverse waves).

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• Seismic waves-The release of energy during an
  earthquake is recorded as a seismic wave.
• Tectonic plates-Lithospheric plates, Plates, -
  sections of crust are divided into oceanic and
  continental plates.
• Transform plate boundary-The boundary between two
  plates that are sliding past each other.
• Tsunami-A wave generated by an earthquake.
  Tsunamis can be extremely large and cause extreme
  property damage and loss of life.
• Uplift-The force that lifts portions of the crust
  to higher elevation. Uplift is usually caused by
  a build up of magma below the surface or by
  plates colliding.
• Volcanic eruption-The release of gasses, steam,
  ash, pyroclasts, and molten rock (lava) is an
  eruption.
• Volcano-A mountain formed from extrusive igneous
  rocks.
• Young mountains-Created by convergent plates
  colliding and forcing the lithosphere to be
  uplifted.

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Topic 13 - Interpreting Geologic History

• Geologic age - the age of the Earth is so
  immense that its age is referred to as geologic
  time. If the age of the Earth was represented
  with a stack of paper sheets, and each sheet of
  paper represented 2000 years, the stack of paper
  would have to be about 750 feet high to represent
  the Earth.
• The geologic rock record is very much like a
  bunch of 1000 piece jigsaw puzzles. All over the
  world, at every location there is the same
  puzzle. The problem is, that no where is there a
  puzzle with all 1000 pieces in the box. Some
  puzzles are missing 50-100 pieces and others are
  missing several hundred pieces. No complete
  puzzle can be completed, but because all the
  puzzles make the same picture, we can get an idea
  what is missing at our location by seeing another
  puzzle that is not missing those pieces. This
  process of filling in the missing pieces is
  called correlation. The pieces are missing due to
  erosion. It is erosion that removes puzzle pieces
  from the rock record. These missing sections are
  called unconformities.
• Absolute age-The absolute age of a rock in years,
  usually a range like 410-425 million years.
  Determined with radioactive dating.

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• Carbon-14 dating- The process of using Carbon-14,
  an isotope of carbon, for absolute dating. The
  use depends on knowing the original amount of
  Carbon-14 present and the amount of the decay
  product.
• Correlation-Correlation is the process of showing
  that rocks from different places are the same or
  similar in age. This process fills in the missing
  pieces of the geologic rock record using among
  other techniques- index fossils.
• Extrusion-When igneous rock flows out onto the
  surface and solidifies, it forms an extrusion.
• Faults- a break between rock layers. Faults are
  always younger than the rocks they cut across.
• Fossil-The remains of former life, preserved as
  rocks. Almost all fossils are found in
  sedimentary rocks. Igneous and metamorphic rock
  processes destroy fossils.
• Geologic time scale-Divisions of the geologic
  time based on changing fossil evidence. The
  divisions are, from longest to shortest, eons,
  eras, periods, and epochs. Much of the
  information regarding these time units is in your
  reference tables.

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• Half-life-The time required for half of a
  radioactive sample to decay is its half-life. By
  knowing the half-life of an isotope and the
  fractions that are decayed and still radioactive,
  we can determine the age of a rock or artifact.
  Because we need a reasonable fraction to look at,
  this techniques works best when at least 1
  half-life has gone by (not too much still
  radioactive) and no more than 6 half-life's have
  gone by (too much decayed).
• Inclusion- When a piece of older rock is encased
  in a younger rock, it is an inclusion. Inclusions
  form as magma pushes through older rock and is
  not hot enough to melt the older rock. It may
  completely surround the older rock forming an
  inclusion. Inclusions are always older than the
  rock that surrounds them.
• Index fossil-Index fossils are used in
  correlation. To be an index fossil, 2 conditions
  must be met. First, the fossil must have lived
  over a wide geographic area so that its remains
  have a large horizontal distribution. Second, the
  life form must have lived for a relatively short
  period of geologic time before it went extinct.
  If it lives for a long time period and can be
  found in many different rock layers it is not
  useful in correlating bedrock.

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• Intrusion- When magma squeezes into existing
  rocks and crystallizes underground it forms an
  intrusion. Intrusions are younger than any rock
  they cut through. Intrusions will cause contact
  metamorphism. If we see an intrusion covered by a
  rock layer that does not show contact
  metamorphism we know that the rock layer formed
  after the intrusion. If we see contact
  metamorphism on the rock layer above the
  intrusion, it tells us that the rock layer was
  there when the intrusion occurred.
• Isotope-A variety of an element with a different
  number of protons than the most common variety of
  that element is an isotope. It must have the same
  number of protons- change the number of protons
  and you change elements.
• Organic evolution theory-The theory that life
  forms change over time.
• Outgassing- The process of gasses seeping out of
  Earth's interior.
• Principle of original horizontality A fancy way
  to say that sedimentary rocks form in horizontal
  layers. If the rocks we are looking at are no
  longer flat, then the tilting or folding
  (tectonic forces) happened since they were
  formed.
• Principle of superposition- The idea that the
  bottom layer of a series of rock layers is the
  oldest, and that younger layers are on top of the
  older layers. New sedimentary rocks form on top
  of older sedimentary rocks.

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• Radioactive dating-The process of using the half
  life of a radioactive isotope and the ratio
  between the existing amount and the original
  amount to date rocks in an absolute manner.
• Radioactive decay-The process of an elements
  nucleus breaking apart and releasing particles
  and energy is radioactive decay. This breaking
  apart is called fission.
• Radioactive decay fractions These are the
  fractions geologists use to determine absolute
  age. There are always 2 fractions which will add
  up to the whole (1) The first is the fraction
  that is still radioactive (parents). This
  fraction is cut in half each time 1 half-life
  goes by. It always has a 1 for its numerator and
  its denominator continually doubles. The other is
  the fraction that has decayed (daughters). This
  fraction always has the same denominator as the
  corresponding parent, and its numerator is the
  denominator minus 1. Example after 3 half
  life's- Parents equal ½ ¼ 1/8
• daughters equal ½ ¾ 7/8
• The 1/8 and the 7/8 add up to the whole (1)
• Parents approach 0 but will never reach it while
  daughters approach 100 without ever reaching it.
• Radioactive isotopes continue to decay forever!
  Nothing affects their decay- not temperature,
  pressure, size or age of the sample!

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• Unconformity- A buried, erosional surface of
  rock, in which older rock layers are missing from
  the geologic record. Without an atmosphere and
  weather a planet would not have any
  unconformities.
• Uranium-238- An important radioactive isotope of
  uranium which helps scientists to date rocks.
  Half-life and disintegration are on the front
  cover of the reference table.
• Volcanic ash- The dust and particles expelled by
  volcanoes during eruptions is volcanic ash. These
  serve as specific age markers in the glacial and
  geologic records. The glacial ice can be dated
  absolutely by examining the lines in ice cores.
  Every volcano emits a composition of dust and ash
  that is unique like a volcanic fingerprint.
  These are extremely useful markers in the rock
  record that assist the correlation process.
  Impact events (asteroid collisions) produce the
  same effect.

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Topic 14 - Landscape Development and
Environmental Change

• Escarpment-Cliffs that form where rocks of
  different hardness erode at different rates.
• Landscape- Landscape or topography are the
  features of the surface on top of the
  lithosphere.
• Landscape region- The characteristics of a region
  including bedrock structures, elevation, stream
  drainage patterns, and soil characteristics.
• Mountain- An area of high elevations compared to
  the surrounding area. Usually includes areas of
  steep gradients, and many changes in slope.
• Plain-Usually composed of sedimentary rock layers
  in a horizontal structure at lower elevations.
• Plateau-An area of high elevation with a
  horizontal structure.
• Ridges-Formed from more resistant rock layers,
  usually in long, narrow bands called ridges.
• Stream drainage pattern-The shape o