Specific Objectives of Course

1
Specific Objectives of Course

• 1. Metalinguistic Awareness Conscious awareness
  of language and the use of language
• 2. Linguistics Scientific study of language

2
World Language Statistical Facts

• "50.4 of Web Users speak a native language other
  than English" (Global Reach)
• ""Almost one-third of websites are presented in a
  language other than English" (Messaging Online)
• "37 million Americans do not speak English at
  home" (US Department of Health)

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Languages of the World (By the Number of
Countries)Source http//www2.ignatius.edu/facul
ty/turner/worldlang.htm http//www2.ignatius.edu/f
aculty/turner/worldlang.htm
4
Languages by Speakers Sourcehttp//www2.ignatius
.edu/faculty/turner/worldlang.htm
5
Where are all the languages on earth?

• 31 Africa  
• 30 Asia  
• 20Pacific 
• 15Americas
• 3Europe
• 1Middle East

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Language and Literacy

• Of the 6.3 billion people on earth1 billion
  adults are non-literate
• Of the 1 billion adults who cannot read2/3 are
  women1/3 are men
• 98 of non-literates live in developing
  countries 
• 6,809 languages on earth   (as of December 2005)
• Source http//www.wycliffe.org/language/statistic
  s.htm

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Are literacy and income related?

• 12,600 Per capita income in countries with
  literacy rates above 96
• 3,700Per capita income in countries with
  literacy rates of 85 to 95
• 2,400Per capita income in countries with
  literacy rates of 55 to 84
• 600Per capita income in countries with literacy
  rates of less than 55 

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Literacy Paradigm

• The Framework for Language Acquisition and
  Development

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Literacy Paradigm

• Literacy competency in listening, speaking,
  reading, and writing.
• Oral language (listening and speaking) primary.
  Written language (reading and writing)
  secondary.
• The acquisition of oral language precedes written
  language development. Oral language is the
  foundation for written language.
• Oral language is acquired naturally. Written
  language is learned.

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Receptive Skills and Productive Skills

• Listening requires input. It is a receptive and
  decoding process. Listening comprehension
  requires strategic decoding skills.
• Speaking is output. It is productive a
  productive process. Effective speech requires
  strategic encoding skills. Listening skills
  precedes speaking skills, which is an encoding
  process.

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Reading Vs. Writing

• Reading requires input. It is a receptive and
  decoding process. Reading skills precedes
  writing skills.
• Writing is productive and output. It is an
  encoding process. Reading comprehension requires
  strategic decoding skills. Effective writing
  requires strategic encoding skills.

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Language Acquisition vs. Language Learning

• Language Learning Conscious studying language
• Language Acquisition Unconscious picking up
  language

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Chapter 1. Introduction to the Study of Language
Development

• The study of language acquisition is a component
  of Cognitive Science.

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Key Terms

• Cognitive Science
• Phonology
• Morphology
• Syntax
• Semantics
• Sociolinguistics
• Behaviorism
• Nativism

• Nature-nurture
• Interactionism
• Constructivism
• Noam Chomsky
• B. F. Skinner
• Universal Grammar
• Language Acquisition Device
• Modularity

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Language Definition and Structure

• Definition systematic, conventional use of
  sounds (signs or written symbols) for the
  communication and self-expression. It is
  symbolic and creative.
• The structure/subcomponents of language
  Phonology Morphology Syntax Semantics
• Human language Vs. Animal Language
• Symbolic, Creative, Intentionality
• Animal language Instinct, response to stimuli

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II. Characteristics of Language acquisition (L1
acquisition)

• Universality
• Uniformity, Stages
• Rapid
• Effortless

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III. Reasons for the study of Language
Acquisition

• Cognitive Science Research purpose
• Applied research
• Verbal skills are important in todays society.
• Language variations exist in any language,
  including English.
• Special education population
• Bilingual education

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IV. Theories of Language Acquisition The
nature-nurture debate

• Behaviorism (1940s) B. F. Skinner
• Nativism The Chomskyan revolution (1960s) LAD
  Universal Grammar
• Interactionism, constructivism

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V. Issues in the study of language acquisition
and approaches to language education

• Modularity Hypothesis

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Ch.2 Biological Bases of Language Development
21
Key Terms

• Pidgins Creoles Neurolinguistics
  Contralateral connections Lesion method
  Dichotic listening task Brain-imaging
  techniques Aphasia Brocas aphasia Wernickes
  aphasia Plasticity Critical period hypothesis

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Language as a human universal

• Pidgins 100 pidgins are currently in use,
  structurally simple, but rule governed. Its not
  a primitive language.
• Creoles children acquire pidgin as native
  language, and add complexity to its grammatical
  structure.
• The development of Nicaraguan sign language
  indicates that children, more than adults, are
  more apt to develop and master the complexity of
  language. Children are not only rule learners,
  but they invent rules.
• In summary Humans are not only able to learn
  language, but also to create language.

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The human brain and language Neurolinguistics

• Neuroanatomy- mostly contralateral connections
• Methods in neurolinguistic studies
• Lesion methods -- patients
• Dichotic listening task -- healthy individuals,
  indicates a right-ear advantage
• Brain-imaging techniques (PET scans and fMRI)
  on both patients and healthy individuals
• Language is a left hemisphere function
• The study of aphasia
• Brocas aphasia Production problem but
  understand language (no comprehension problem)
• Wernickes aphasia Comprehension problem, but ok
  in production --produce meaningless language

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Brian development and language development

• Plasticity
• Children and adults differ in their brain
  development and recovery of aphasia due to neural
  plasticity.
• There is more plasticity in childrens brain than
  in adults. The plasticity peaks between the ages
  of 2 and 5.
• Plasticity are innate, they will be lost if they
  are not used.
• The Critical Period Hypothesis
• A biologically determined period during which
  language acquisition must occur, also known as
  the sensitive period.
• Victor of Aveyron
• Genie
• Second language acquisition

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Chapter 3. Phonological Development Learning
the Sounds of Language
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Key Terms

• phonological awareness
• phonemic awareness
• phoneme
• vowel sound
• consonant sound
• phonotactic knowledge
• phonemic symbols for English
• phone
• allophone
• prosody

• articulatory phonetics
• phonetic features
• place of articulation
• manner of articulation
• voicing (voiced, voiceless)
• cooing
• vegetative sounds
• babbling
• categorical perception
• motherese infant-directed speech child-directed
  speech

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Phonological Awareness and Language Development

• Phonemic awarenessthe conscious awareness of
  phonemes as units of sounds
• Phonological awareness--the conscious awareness
  of the phonological properties of languages
  (e.g., counting number of syllables and
  identification of rhymes, stress, and intonation
  patterns of words and sentences)
• Phonological awareness and phonemic awareness are
  important predictors in future success in L2
  language acquisition and literacy development

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I. Phonological Knowledge in Adults

• There are about 200 possible sounds that are used
  in language no single language uses all these
  sounds. English uses about 45 sounds.
• Adults know all the sounds in their native
  language they also know what a possible sound
  sequence is in their language. They have
  phonotactic knowledge the knowledge of the
  constraints on the sequencing of sounds.
• Adults understand phonological rules in their
  native language.
• Adults knowledge about the phonology in their
  native language is generally subconscious.

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Varieties of Speech Sounds

• Phone a speech sound, such as /m/ or /ma/, used
  by any language, as opposed to non-linguistic
  sound.
• Phoneme speech sounds in a particular language
  signals a difference in meaning there are two
  classes of phonemes consonants and vowels
• Allophone acoustically different speech sounds
  that are not functionally different (same
  phonemes) in a particular language.
• Allophones do not change the meaning of a word
  they are very similar to one another E.g., /ph/
  in Pill and /p/ in Spill in English language are
  allophones, but are different phonemes in other
  languages l/r are allophones in Korean language,
  but they are different phonemes in English
  language i/ I (beat/bit) are phonemes in
  English, but are allophones in Chinese or Russian.

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Describing speech sounds Phonetics

• The knowledge of phonetics is generally not
  explicit in L1 teaching and learning.
• Phonetics is helpful in L2 teaching and learning.
  Also helpful in metalinguistic awareness of
  ones native language.
• The letters in the English alphabet are not
  adequate for describing speech sounds, e.g.
  ghoti for fish.
• Articulartory Phonetics the system of describing
  speech sounds in terms of how they are produced.
• Phonemic Symbols p. 94

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Phonetic features

• Characteristics of speech sound description
• Description of Consonant sounds
• manner of articulation
• place of articulation (Refer to Vocal Tract
  Diagram in Chapter 2)
• voicing. P. 96

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Universal stages of pre-speech vocal development
Prelinguistic Speech Production

• 1). Reflexive crying and vegetative sounds
  (vocal cords vibrate when crying, burping,
  sucking, etc) Birth
• 2). Cooing vowel sounds 2 month
• 3). Vocal play consonant-like and vowel-like
  sounds, marginal babbling 3 month
• 4). Reduplicated babbling 6 months
• Babbling infants production of nonsense
  linguistic sounds
• 5). Nonreduplicated babbling and Prosody
  (intonation contour) right before 1 year old
• 6). First word 1 year old
• Children learn to produce the melody of their
  language (prosody) before they learn to produce
  the particular phonemes or sounds in their
  language.

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Phonological Development once Speech Begins
Speech Sound Production

• Stages of consonant phonemes development some
  phonemes acquired earlier (p, b, m, h, n, w )
  than others (ch, sh, z, j, v, th, zh)
• Comparing to newborns, older children (about 1
  year old) loose the ability to produce the sounds
  nonexistent in their native language.
• Childrens productions are not adult like. They
  go through similar phonological processes in
  mastering the speech sounds of their language.
• By the age of about 7, most children are able to
  produce all the sounds like adults in their
  language.

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Prelinguistic Speech Perception

• Research methods high-amplitude sucking
  technique head-turn technique.
• Categorical perception The perception of stimuli
  that vary along a physical continuum as belonging
  to discrete categories.
• Human (adults and infants) have the unique
  ability to perceive the difference between
  similar speech sounds, e.g., /p/ and /b/
• Research result in speech perception
• Newborns can distinguish utterances in their
  native language from utterances in another
  language.
• Older infants and adults loose the ability to
  hear the sounds that are not in their native
  language.
• Infants have the ability to distinguish almost
  all the sounds all human languages uses.

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Child-directed Speech/Motherese

• The kind of speech that mothers or others produce
  when talking to infants and young children.
• Characteristics Higher pitches, a wider range of
  pitches, longer pauses, shorter phrases, usage of
  content words.

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Summary

• Childrens perception of speech sounds precedes
  their production of speech sounds. They can
  discriminate the differences in speech sounds
  although they might not be able to produce the
  different speech sounds.
• To be able to discriminate or segment phonemes
  and sounds is the first step in learning and
  understand a language. Sound segmentation can be
  both a subconscious and a conscious effort.
• The importance of phonological awareness in
  relation to second language and literacy
  development

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Chapter 4 Lexical Development Learning Words
and Their Meanings

• Semantics at word level

38
Key Terms

• mental lexicon
• word
• reference
• Under-extensions over-extensions
• word spurt
• phonological memory
• speech segmentation
• mapping problem

• word-learning constraints
• whole-object assumption
• mutual exclusivity assumption
• concepts
• lexical gap
• Semantic Organization
• Lexical Organization
• Whorfian hypothesis linguistic relatively
  hypothesis

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Lexical knowledge in adults

• 1 .Mental Lexicon The knowledge of words that
  speakers of a language possess a speakers
  mental dictionary. It includes
• Pronunciation (sometimes spelling)
• definition
• usage in context
• 2. Word a sound sequence that symbolizes
  meaning, and can stand alone.
• symbolic
• arbitrary
• Reference the notion of words as symbols that
  stand for their referents.

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The course of early lexical development

• 1. First word productive words occurring around
  1 year old
• 2. Context-bound words become decontextualized.
• 3. Underextensions and overextensions of word
  usage
• Underextensions Using words with a range of
  meanings narrower than the meaning of words in
  the target language. E.g. car only seen from
  window.
• Overextensions A type of error in childrens
  early word usage that seems to reflect a very
  inclusive meaning in the mind of the child.
  Daddy for all men. Knife for pencil.
• 4. Word spurt increase in the rate at which
  children acquire new words. Timing 18 month or
  50 word productive vocabulary

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Lexical Development and Reading Instruction

• Word comprehension precedes word production
  comprehension vocabularies are always larger than
  production vocabularies in language acquisition.
• Reading Instruction
• Listening Level
• Independent Level
• Instruction Level
• Frustration Level

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Individual differences in lexical development

• 1. Styles Early vocabulary development
  Referential and expressive language users
• Referential Language Style more vocabulary for
  object labels
• Expressive Language Style more vocabulary for
  social functions
• 2. Rate of lexical development
• A Input
• amount of input
• nature of input
• timing of input
• B Individual Factors
• Gender
• Linguistic Intelligence
• Phonological memory The function of short-term
  memory remember unfamiliar sounds

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The process of word learning

• 1. Speech segmentation the mental process of
  separating the speech stream into separate words
• 2. Word-referent Mapping
• Mapping problem The logical problem of learning
  word meanings that arises because an infinite
  number of hypotheses about word meaning may be
  consistent with information in the nonlinguistic
  context of use.
• Word-learning constraints Internal biases that,
  by hypotheses, limit the number of possible
  meanings of new words children must consider.
• Whole-object assumption a word learning
  constraint according to which children assume
  that a new word refers to a whole object, not to
  a part or property of an object.
• Mutual exclusivity assumption A word-learning
  constraint according to which children assume
  that objects can have only a single name.

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The process of word learning

• 3. Lexical entry storage To remember and
  distinguish similar words.
• Entries in the mental lexicon are sequences of
  phonemes that have symbolic representation of
  referents and concepts.
• Lexical entries must depend on phonological
  knowledge knowledge of the sounds and sound
  patterns of a language.
• 4. Principle of Conventionality Word meaning is
  a convention in a speech community

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The relation of words to concepts

• Concept ideas, abstract mental category that
  includes individual examples of that idea.
• Words encode concepts
• Lexical Gap Children have concepts for which
  there is no word in their language they tend to
  invent words to fill in these lexical gaps.
• Semantic Organization how meanings are
  linguistically realized the organization of
  meaning expressed in a language--as distinct from
  cognitive organization
• Lexical organization how concepts are encoded in
  words the way in which the mental lexicon
  represents the relation between words and
  meanings

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Whorfian hypothesis (linguistic relativity
hypothesis)

• Language influence thoughts, therefore, speakers
  of different languages have different cognitive
  organizations
• An outdated theory, but does hold some truth
• On the whole, different language speakers have
  more commonalities with each other than
  differences

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Chapter 5The Development of Syntax and
Morphology Learning the Structure of Language
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Key Terms

• Syntax
• Syntactic Rules
• morphology
• morphemes
• free morphemes
• bound morphemes
• grammatical morphemes
• productivity or generativity of language
• open-class word
• closed class words
• lexical catagories--content words
• functional categories--function words
• noun phrase example
• verb phrase example

• prescriptive rule
• descriptive rule
• holophrastic speech
• telegraphic speech
• yes/no questions
• wh- questions
• mean length of utterance (MLU)
• Overregularizations
• Examples of various sentence structure (tense,
  present, past, future, progressive, perfect,
  active, passive, simple, complex, negation)
• Example of simple sentence
• Example of complex sentence
• object example

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Syntax and Morphology The abstract and
subconscious rules
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Liberty being built in Paris workshop
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Various stages of Liberty installation in Paris
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Syntax Makes Difference

• Henry is a professor. He works at the university.
  He lives in Munich. Helga is his wife. She is a
  teacher. She also works in the city. They have
  two children. Inge is their daughter. She is ten
  years old. Hans is their son. He is eight years
  old. They have an apartment. Its small. Its
  also nice. The apartment is in a house. The house
  is old. The house is on a street. The street is
  called Garden Street.
• Henry, who is a professor, works at the
  university in Munich. Helga, his wife, is a
  teacher and also works in the city. They have two
  children. Inge, who is ten years old, is their
  daughter, and their son, Hans, is an
  eight-year-old. They have a small but nice
  apartment in an old house on Garden Street.

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Text Type

• Individual words, lists of words
• Phrases
• Chunks of language
• Discrete sentences with no connectors
• Strings of sentences
• Simple, connected with and
• Connected with but
• Connected with other conjunctions
• Complex sentences
• Sentences with subordination
• Sentences with embedded clauses
• Sentences with multiple clauses
• Paragraphs
• Sentences that open prolonged speech
• Sentences that point to the main idea
• Sentences that focus on the main idea
• Sentences that conclude
• Connected paragraphs, extended discourse

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Adults knowledge of language structure

• The productivity of language
• A. nature of language
• B. major characteristic of language
• C. knowledge of a language to be able to
  create/produce and understand unlimited number of
  new and different sentences.
• D. Also called the generativity of language
  generative grammar. There is an underlying
  knowledge of a system that allows speakers to
  comprehend and produce an infinite number of
  different sentences from a finite inventory of
  words and syntactic rules.
• E. The two components of the productive system
  are morphology and syntax

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Adults knowledge of language structure

• 2. Syntax the system for putting words
  together word order in a sentence the rules for
  sentence formation.
• A. Syntax abstract rules a sentence is
  represented not simply by the semantic relations
  of words, but formulas of variables
• B. Sample syntactic rules Sentence (IP)NP
  VP English NP (Determiner) (Adjective) Noun
  
• Chinese NP (measure word) noun
• VP Verb (NP) NP is optional
• C. These variables are related to one another in
  a hierarchical position. Words in a sentence
  are not related to each other in a liner
  relation, but rather a hierarchical relation.

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Syntactic Tree
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Adults knowledge of language structure

• D. Just as words are symbolic (abstract)
  representations of referents and concepts syntax
  rules are symbolic (abstract) representations of
  groups of words, which encode concepts.
• E. Classification of words (parts of speech in
  traditional grammar)
• a. Content Word Nouns, verbs, adjectives,
  adverbs open-class words lexical categories
• b. Function Word determiners (articles),
  prepositions, conjunctions, modals (helping
  verbs) closed-class words functional categories

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Adults knowledge of language structure

• 3. Morphology the rules of combining the
  smallest units of language into words the rules
  for word formation.
• A. Bound morpheme grammatical
  morpheme/inflectional morpheme s, ing, ed
  doesnt change the meaning of the word
  derivational morpheme prefixes or suffixes er,
  ly, change the meaning of the word
• B. Free morpheme a morpheme that stands alone
  as a word. The river is wide.

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Adults knowledge of language structure

• 4. English, comparing to other languages, doesnt
  have a rich morphological system. The bound
  morphemes in English are few. English language
  reply on syntax (word order) for meaning.
  Subject- Verb Object.
• 5. Syntax and morphology are systems for
  combining units for meaning. Syntaxcombining
  words into sentences Morphologycombining
  units/morphemes into words. All speakers of a
  language know the rules for syntax and
  morphology, as well as the categories and
  structures these rules operate over. These rules
  are mostly subconscious.

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Adults knowledge of language structure

• 6. Descriptive vs. prescriptive rules
• Prescriptive rules Rules of grammar that define
  how language should be used, as taught in school.
  (Educated speakers descriptive rules)
• Descriptive rules rules that describe speakers
  linguistic knowledge (knowledge of syntax,
  morphology, phonology and semantics)
• Example
• Prescriptive rules
• Descriptive rules

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An overview of ones grammatical
development (productive syntax)Universal

• 1. Holophrastic Stage Single word 1 year old
• 2. Telegraphic Stage Two words 1.5-2 years old
• 3. Three or more words 2 2.5 year old, simple
  declarative sentence
• 4. Varied sentence structure Usage of negation,
  Yes/No questions, WH questions 3 years old
• 5. Usage of relative clauses 4 years old

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An overview of ones grammatical development
(productive syntax)Universal

• Syntax production is generally complete between
  the age of 2 and 4.
• A childs speech early speech also contains
• Transitional forms between one-word and
  two-word stage
• Memorized phrases (word chunks, multiword
  utterances, rote-learned holes, jargon word
  combinations)
• How does second language acquisition and
  development comparing to first language
  grammatical development?

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Characteristics of Early Word Utterances

• Two-word combinations indicate the beginning of a
  productive linguistic system create new
  sentences never heard with limited vocabulary,
  not simple imitation of adults sentences.
• Telegraphic speech content words, missing
  function words and grammatical morphemes
• Stages of morphological development in acquiring
  English ing,, in, on, plural (s)
• Childrens acquisition of syntax and
  morphological rules, when comparing with adults,
  are relatively error free and seemingly
  effortless.

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Characteristics of Early Word Utterances

• 5. MLU Mean Length Utterance is usage to measure
  childrens syntactic development.
• Stage I 1 - 2 word combination, lacking
  grammatical morphemes
• Stage II. 2 to 2.5 grammatical morphemes
• Stage III. 2.5 to 3 different sentence structure,
  syntactic transformations
• Stage IV. 3 and up complex sentences
• Stage V. Metalinguistic awareness increase

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Comprehension vs. Production in Syntax
The development of comprehension in syntax

• Research indicates
• Comprehension of syntax (grammar) precedes
  production of syntax, and is achieved very early.
• The sequence of grammatical development in
  comprehension is similar to the sequence of
  production of grammatical development
• Comprehension skills are not a very good
  predictor of a childs level of productive
  grammar.

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The nature of childrens grammar L1

• Debate Childrens knowledge of grammar
  semantically based or syntactically based?
• Children know grammatical rules
• Natural patterns of word combination (syntax)
• Overregularization errors
• Testing-controlled creation of new sentences and
  new words wug test
• 3. Tadpole-frog problem supports the notion that
  childrens early grammar is like adults grammar.
  It is syntactically-based.

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The nature of childrens grammar L1

• 4. Children acquire the grammar of their native
  language regardless of the amount of input they
  receive. The amount of input has more effect on
  lexical development than grammatical development.
  However, the amount and the nature of input do
  affect the acquisition of grammar to a certain
  degree.
• 5. Implication in Teaching Language Arts or
  language teaching
• - Comparing and contrasting the grammar
  (morphology and syntax) in Oral Language and
  Written Language
• - Comparing and contrasting L1 and L2
  acquisition of grammar (morphology and syntax)

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Conclusions

• Language is essentially rules-governed.
• Grammatical Rules (phonological rules, syntactic
  rules, morphological rules, rules for semantics
  rules for written conventions) and rules for
  Communicative Competence
• We acquire these rules for the most part,
  innately, with outside input we acquire
  grammatical rules more innately than
  communicative competence rules
• Grammatical Rules around 5 (syntactic rules
  2-4) Communicative Competence life long
  endeavor
• Overregularization and other grammatical and
  communicative mistakes as evidence of rules and
  acquisition of rules
• Human beings are equipped with language and the
  acquisition of language. Language is too
  complicated to be taught. Language has to be
  internalized eventually. Teachers are
  faciliators.

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Chapter 6 Communication and Language in
Development

• The development of communicative competence

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Communicative Competence

• Linguistic competence
• Communicative competence
• Pragmatic knowledge understand the usage
  (communicative function and conventions) of
  language
• Discourse knowledge conversations and narratives
• Sociolinguistic Knowledge language
  variationsregional, gender and status, cultural
  variations including phonology, lexicon and syntax

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Pragmatics

• Speech Acts doing things with words. Each
  utterance is a speech act, including illocution
  locution perlocution. Language intention, form,
  and effect are to be analyzed separately.

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Discourse Competence

• Conversation turn taking cooperation
• The Maxims of Conversation Principles of
  productive conversation
• Quantity, quality, relation, manner
• Narratives sustain talks and make them coherent

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Sociolinguistics

• Register styles of language use in particular
  social setting
• Dialects gender, regional (local, national,
  international), status
• Language socialization the process of learning
  the language style of ones particular social
  group

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The communicative foundations of language
development

• Prelinguistic communicative development
  perlocutionary (0-10 months) illocutionary
  (10-12 months) locutionary (12 months)
• Communicative intention starts around 10 months,
  a biological maturation factor
• Joint attention development desire and ability
  to join another mind

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Discourse Development

• Private Speech-solitary monologue monologue in
  social settings
• Piaget (1926s) egocentric child, limited desire
  and skill
• Vygostky (1970s) behavior self-guidance
• Language Play enhances language development more
  than private speech does

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Discourse Development

• Conversation skills development turn taking,
  topics initiation, miscommunication repairing,
  sustaining dialogue and contingent responding
  influenced by adults
• Narrative skills development adults
  scaffolding, style, complexity and structure of
  language strongly influences childrens narrative
  skills development narrative skills originate in
  conversational skills

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Sociolinguistics development

• Sociolinguistic development is culturally
  (geographical, gender, social/economic status)
  bound. E.g. Japanese culture vs. American
  culture African American culture vs. White
  American culture
• By 5, children learn to produce situationally
  appropriate language with different registers
  depending on the setting, topics and the
  addressee. They acquire communicative
  competence, along with linguistic competence
  within their speech community.
• By 5, children from different speech communities
  use language very differently.

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• Childrens sociolinguistic competence will either
  hinder or enhance their literacy and educational
  development. E.g. Linguistic minority children.
• Gender variation Boys and girls use language
  differently in lexicon, grammar and
  pronunciation.

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Conclusion

• Communicative competence develop in childrens
  language along with grammatical competence.
  However, communicative competence might be more
  influenced by the environment than biological
  factors.
• Time Line 10 months (intention, pragmatics) 1
  year (locution, forms) 2 year (conversation and
  narratives, discourse) 5 year (styles,
  dialects, gender and status variation)

82
Key Terms

• linguistic competence
• communicative competence
• pragmatic knowledge
• discourse knowledge
• sociolinguistic knowledge
• speech act
• illocutionary force
• locution
• perlocution

• conversations
• Graces conversational maxims
• narratives
• registers
• dialects
• joint attention
• collective monologues
• private speech
• language play
• topic centered
• topic associating

83
Chapter 7Language Development in Special
Populations

• Deafness, Blindness, Mental Impairment, Autism,
  Specific Language Impairment

84
Key Terms

• prelingually deaf
• sign language
• ASL
• Grammar of Sign Language location, movement and
  handshape
• oralist method
• total communication
• home sign
• cochlear implant

• down syndrome
• Williams syndrome
• chatterbox syndrome
• autism
• echolalic speech
• specific language impairment
• grammatical morphology

85
Language Development in Deaf Population

• 1/1000 children born deaf 10 to deaf parents
  90 to hearing parents
• Prelingually deaf and the effect of otitis media
• Language Approach to Deaf Children Oralist
  Method Total Communication Mastery of spoken
  English
• Sign Language ASL
• Real Language has its own lexicon and grammar
  (morphology and syntax) morphemes and phonemes
  by using handshape, location and movement as
  grammatical markers
• Not ionic, but rather arbitrary symbols
• Not translation of spoken language

86
Acquisition of Sign Language

• Children acquire sign languages go through the
  same stages as children acquiring spoken
  language manual babbling, single-sign,
  multi-sign combinations, complex syntax,
  overregularizations, pronoun confusions.
• The timing of sign language development Sign
  language appears earlier than spoken language in
  context bound signs but equal timing in
  referential signs (extension of signs that
  require cognitive abilities)
• Home Sign invention of sign language which
  indicates that there is a natural form of human
  language
• Technology and Language Acquisition for the Deaf
  Hearing Aid Cochlear implant

87
Language Development in Blindness

• Blind children generally acquire language in the
  same manner (including timing and stages) as
  seeing children.
• Language acquisition (phonology, morphology,
  syntax, lexicon, and communicative aspects) are
  only slightly affected, but not essentially
  affected by blindness.

88
Language Acquisition and Mental Impairment

• The issue of autonomy (modularity theory)
  Linguistic ability and general intelligence
• Down Syndrome population
• 1/800 general population 1/3 in mentally
  impaired population
• mostly delaying in linguistic development in
  phonology, lexicon and grammar
• comprehension skills better than production
  skills
• competent communicators with gestures and other
  communicative strategies, but with limited
  lexical and grammatical complexities strong in
  communicative aspects of language development but
  weak in grammatical aspect of language
  development
• some achieve adult-like linguistic competence

89
Language Acquisition and Mental Impairment

• Williams Syndrome mentally retarded, but unusual
  grammatical competence rich vocabulary, complex
  sentences, coherent narratives. Production
  better than comprehension, less metalinguistic
  awareness skills
• Chatterbox syndrome
• Dissociability of language and cognition
  acquiring grammar is separate from other
  nonlinguistic cognitive functions acquiring
  grammar is separate from the mental ability that
  underlies the acquisition of semantics and
  pragmatics
• In conclusion mental retardation affects
  language development but doesnt predict how
  language development will be affected.

90
Language Development and Autism

• Autism severe disorder in language and
  communication.
• Lower-functioning persons with autism
• 50 of autistic population
• mentally impaired on nonverbal tests of
  intelligence
• Non-speech
• Echolalic speech functions for social
  communication reasons but not linguistic reasons
• Not successful in teaching language to
  lower-functioning persons with autism

91
Language Development and Autism in
higher-functioning persons

• Less-severe general intellectual impairment
• Acquire language, but might be delayed and
  deviant prosodic features lexicon syntax (not
  producing questions)
• Have more problems with communicative competence
  rather than linguistic competence acquire
  language but not fully communicative
• Dissociability of language and cognition

92
Specific Language Impairment

• Difficulty in acquiring grammar, but normal
  intellectual ability. Also referred as
  developmental language disorders developmental
  dysphasia.
• Characteristics
• Language delay, especially in production,
  including phonology, semantics, syntax and
  pragmatics mostly delay in grammar (morphology
  and syntax)
• Deviant production e.g. word-order errors, which
  supports the theoretical notion of modularity
  theory noting that there is a selective deficit
  within a separate language faculty.
• Asynchrony subsystems of language is delayed and
  develop out of synchrony, e.g. missing
  grammatical morphemes beyond the telegraphic
  stage. The acquisition of grammatical morphology
  is of particular difficulty for children with
  SLI.

93
Causes for SLI

• Not the environment
• Genetic factors Family Concentration 70 from
  family concentration 30 are not.
• Phonological memory deficit
• Nonlinguistic cognition in children with SLI
• Language Acquisition Device Impairment
• Specific language impairment as a temporal
  processing disorder

94
Conclusion

• Sign Language is a language and the capacity for
  language is not generally affected by blindness
  or deafness.
• Mental impairments affect language to some
  degree, but affect different people differently.
• The issue of dissociability of language and
  cognition.
• Better understanding of the nature of language
  subsystems in language linguistic competence and
  communicative competence

95
Childhood Bilingualism

• Chapter 8

96
Key Terms

• simultaneous bilingualism
• sequential bilingualism
• language differentiation
• language transfer
• instrumental motivation
• integrative motivation

• code switching
• metalinguistic awareness
• bilingual education
• immersion program
• TESOL, ESL, ELL, ESOL

97
Statistics - National
98
Statistics - Tennessee
99
Statistics - Cleveland City Schools

• Growth 397
• 94-95 32
• 04-05 159

• Languages 14, 02-03
• Spanish,
• Ukraine
• Russian
• Chinese
• Gujarati
• Hindi
• Vietnamese
• Bulgarian
• Korean
• Arabic
• Greek
• Portuguese
• Kikuyu
• Japanese

100
Statistics - Georgia
101
Statistics Teacher Training

• Percentage of public school teachers who taught
  LEP students and percentage of these teachers
  with 8 or more training on how to teach LEP
  students, 1999-2000. Source U.S. Dept of
  Education, National Center for Education
  Statistics (2002)

102
The Social Circumstances of Childhood Bilingualism

• Simultaneous bilingualism (Early bilingualism,
  bilingual first language acquisition,
  simultaneous bilingualism) From birth
• Sequential bilingualism acquiring a second
  language after knowing a first language (3 or 4
  years old)
• Sequential bilingualism also occurs when children
  first learn an indigenous or tribal language or a
  dialect and then the national language or
  standard language at school

103
Studies in Bilingual Development

• The course of bilingual development in language
  acquisition process
• Heritage language development
• The effect of bilingual education
• The social and political issues in bilingual
  education

104
Simultaneous bilingualism

• Two concerns Language differentiation the
  course and rate of language development in two
  languages
• Proposals of Language differentiation
• The fusion hypothesis
• The autonomous development hypothesis
• Interdependent development hypothesis
• Language differentiation in
• Phonological differentiation
• Lexical differentiation
• Morphosyntactic differentiation

105
Language Differentiation

• Phonological differentiation infants has the
  ability to differentiate two languages babies
  exposed to two languages retain the ability to
  hear the difference b/w those languages without
  such exposure they loose the ability to
  differentiate two languages
• Bilingual children have distinctly different
  phonological features in their productions
  depending on which of their languages they are
  using.

106
Language Differentiation

• Lexical differentiation bilingual children
  acquiring two lexical systems override the mutual
  exclusivity principle and accept two names in two
  languages for the same object
• Morphosyntactic differentiation the core issue
  in the concept of language differentiation
  Children do differentiate the morphosyntactic
  systems of the two languages
• No evidence of grammatical fusion, only lexical
  gap
• Adults evidence of mixing languages doesnt
  indicate their fusion of two languages
• Global differentiation

107
Bilingualisms effect on the development of each
language

• Bilingual and monolingual development are highly
  similar, while bilingual development causes some
  delay in the development of each language, but
  not so much as to be out of the normal range of
  development
• Prelinguistic development same rate
• Vocabulary acquisition bilingual children have a
  larger total vocabularies but smaller
  vocabularies in each language
• Grammar acquisition the rate of bilingual
  children is slightly behind, but the course of
  development is the same
• By the age of 10, the differences of grammatical
  development between bilingual children and
  monolingual children disappear

108
The Social and Political Effect of Bilingualism
on Children

• If bilingualism is valued by the culture, the
  children who are bilingual are viewed as learning
  more than children who are acquiring one
  language or vice versa.
• Bilingual development need environmental support

109
Factors influencing Second Language Acquisition

• Age
• Proficiency in First Language
• Social/personality characteristics
• Social, cultural, and political attitude of the
  target language and environment
• Motivation
• Instrumental motivation
• Integrative motivation
• Ideology Integrationist assimilations
  separatist

110
Legal Issues in Bilingual Education

• 1968 Bilingual Education Act
• 1974 Lau vs. Nichol
• 1982 Plyler vs. Doe
• 2001 NCLB
• Different states have different laws and
  bilingual education models
• TN Transitional Model in ESL Education
• Home Language Survey
• 501 Ratio
• Modification in Assessment
• Cleveland ESL Education not Bilingual Education

111
Second Language Acquisition in Childhood

• The course of second language acquisition
• Use of native language
• Nonverbal period silence period gestural
  communication
• Memorized phrases
• New language productivity
• Interlanguage use language transfer errors
• The rate of second language acquisition
• Differentiation of BISCBasic Interpersonal
  Communication Skills and CALP- Cognitive Academic
  Language proficiency
• 1 and half year or more for BISC
• 5-7 years for CALP
• Dominant language switch hypothesis

112
Bilingual Language Use

• Code switching deliberate choice of language
  changes code mixing language confusion.
• Code switching is a result of various linguistic,
  social and cultural, and communicative reasons.
  Code switching is not simply borrowing foreign
  words. Young children are competent in code
  switching.

113
Cognitive Consequences of Bilingualism

• Research in 1930s Bilingualism in young children
  is a hardship
• From1960s, views in bilingualism are changed.
  Balanced bilinguals are found to do better on
  cognitive tests, with better mental flexibility
• General Research findings
• a higher degree of metaliguistic awareness
• certain cognitive advantages e.g. seeking out
  the rules
• Better executive functioning better in directing
  cognitive resources
• Better performance on standardized tests
• Bilingual Brain aphasia in Bilinguals age the
  acquisition of syntax vs. the acquisition of
  semantics

114
Models of Bilingual Education

• Bilingual Education content areas in two
  languages
• Immersion Program a form of bilingual education
  curriculum in second language
• Goals of bilingual education
• 1. revitalizing endangered indigenous languages
• 2. language maintenance
• 3. transition to the majority language
• 4. translation aid
• 5. two-way bilingual
• Effective Bilingual Education Literacy skills
  are transferable across languages
• Conclusion it is possible for schools to support
  the acquisition of childrens competence in their
  home language without cost to the competence in
  the societal language however, its a political,
  cultural, and ideological issue nevertheless,
  individuals can make a difference if they decide
  to.

115
Language development in School years

• Chapter 9

116
Key Terms

• phonemic awareness phonological awareness
• derivational morphology inflectional morphology
• coherence cohesion story grammar
• comprehension monitoring
• decontextualized language use
• emergent literacy
• family literacy
• alphabetic systems Alphabetic principles
• Matthew effect
• Phonics Whole-language approach
• Developmental dyslexia

117
Oral Language development after age of 5

• 1. Phonological development
• Mastering the essentials of Phonology.
• Improvement on fluency.
• Increased phonological awareness, which is an
  important factor in predicting reading skills.
• 2. Accent and dialect changes
• Before 5 acquire dialect of caregivers. This
  accent is not permanent.
• Adolescents phonology change can result of
  relocation or peer influence, or desire to gain
  new identity.

118
Oral Language development after age of 5

• 3. Development of phonological awareness
• Increased phonological awareness such as
  decoding phonemes, syllables, and identification
  of rhymes.
• Increased phonemic awareness awareness of
  phonemes as units.
• Phonological awareness is influenced by
  innateness and experience. Children who know
  more nursery rhymes show higher level of
  awareness of the construction of syllables.
• Research indicates that low level of phonemic
  awareness in adult illiterates.
• However, phonemic awareness can develop without
  reading instruction, it is innate. Some acquire
  phonological awareness more readily than others.
• 4. Lexical development
• Rapid increase in vocabulary development.
• Increased knowledge in derivational morphology
  rather than inflectional or grammatical
  morphology the ability to create new words by
  adding certain suffixes or prefixes (derivational
  morphemes) to existing words (such as dancer
  er dancer). P. 372 chart
• Increased knowledge in root words, compounds, and
  idioms, with idioms (non-literal phrases or
  words) being most challenging.

119
Oral Language development after age of 5

• 5. Morphosyntactic development
• Sentence-level By age of 4 or 5, morphosyntactic
  development is essentially complete. Childrens
  sentence structure is complete as adults.
• Discourse-level development continues to
  development. Children learn to link sentences
  together into meaningful stretches of discourse.
  For example, by providing context. Discourse
  styles are generally culturally bound.
• The 4- and 5- year olds grammar is for producing
  sentences. After the age of 8, children use
  their grammars for producing text.
• 6. Developing narrative skill
• Coherence The structures of a story, the
  sequence of events are related in a meaningful
  way.
• Cohesion the use of linguistic device to link
  sentences together.
• Story grammar the structure that all stories
  follow.
• 8. Development of nonliteral uses of language
  increases.

120
Oral Language and Schooling

• Schooling effects on language development
  Schooling promote language development,
  development of cognitive academic language
  skills, e.g. giving definition of words
• Teacher effects on language development
  discourse style, literacy activities.
• Effects of cultural mismatches between home and
  school children dont understand the teachers
  discourse style and teachers dont understand
  childrens discourse style.

121
The Foundation of Literacy

• Oral language and literacy phonological
  awareness and decontexualized language use.
  Contrast of decontextualized language use and
  contextualized language use.
• Early experience and literacy emergent literacy
  and family literacy.

122
Learning to Read

• 1. Alphabetic systems
• 2. Alphabetic principle
• 3. Mathew effect
• 4. Phonics
• 5. Whole language