Problem Solving

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Problem Solving

• Donahoe Palmer,
• Chapter 10

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Traditional Views

• What is the traditional view of problems solving
  (p 270). Be able to provide some terms used to
  describe problem-solving and the problems with
  those terms! (e.g. insight, inspiration, genius,
  intuition, etc.)
• Problem-solving is often thought of as an
  Insight or sudden answer to the problem
• Really smart people are believed to be good
  problem-solvers (what is wrong with this
  sentence?!)
• Problem-solving is dependent on experience in a
  field (or knowledge)
• Problem-solving often involves speaking and
  listening to yourself

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Selectionism

• 2. Know what is meant be a selectionist approach
  how evolution and behavioral principles are
  similar (lecture)
• Evolutionary theory- traits that aid survival
  continue, those that dont disappear (the
  organism lives to reproduce or does not)
• Selectionist approach to behavior those
  behaviors that are successful continue, those
  that are not, extinguish

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Define Problem Solving

• 3. You should be able to narrow the definition of
  Problem As Dr. Palmer has. To do this, You
  should be able to identify exceptions to the
  definition and provide the actual definition. (p
  271)
• Problem must be solvable by an individual, with
  the current skills they have. (Others are not
  examples of problem-solving)
• Must have some cue that we have encountered a
  problem. Accidental solutions are not examples of
  problem solving (e.g. finding something someone
  else has lost and you were not looking for it!).
  Often a Problem cue is that some other response
  is blocked (e.g. fix sandwich mayo missing!)
• Must not be able to solve the problem directly
  we must engage in some other behaviors prior to
  the final response being emitted. If we have
  encountered and solved the situation in the past,
  it has been reinforced and likely to simply be a
  response in our repertoire. Thus, it is not a
  problem! (we know the solution).
• Examples
• What is the square root of 676?
• Computer will not turn on.
• Car wont start

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Problem or not? You are getting ready to go to
school tap you pocket and keys are not there
you look to the peg by the door and they are
there.

• A problem
• Not a problem

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Problem or not? You mother lost her watch and she
has been searching for it for several weeks. On
Sunday, when cleaning the toilet, you find her
watch in the bowl and give it to her.

• A problem
• Not a problem

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Problem or not? Solve the following xn yn
znthere are no numbers that will fit x, y and z
if n is greater than 2.

• A problem
• Not a problem

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Problem or not? 3x2 2x 10

• A problem
• Not a problem

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Mediating response or not

• 4. Be able to provide the same analysis that Dr.
  Palmer provides on page 272 the first column.
  Know what mediating response are (lecture)
• Latency is not a good measure of problem-solving
  (the time to solution) as it is dependent on
  experience
• e.g. 15 x 15
• If it is a simple operant it is fast
• If other behaviors must occur it is
  problem-solving and slower. (thus a chain,
  mediating responses are those between the
  stimulus and the final response)
• Problem solving requires emitting responses that
  cause a change in the environment that may lead
  to the solution

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Marshalling Supplementary Stimuli

• 5. Know the techniques used for Marshalling
  Supplementary Stimuli(272-275)
• Supplement to add to
• Change your orientation changes the stimuli you
  come into contact with (reduces some, increases
  others). (look around, etc. )
• Physically manipulating the environment changes
  the stimuli you are exposed to, and often alters
  your own behavior. (open things, rearrange
  things)
• .Consult other sources ask others, open books,
  look on web.

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Chains of Behavior.

• 6. Know the point Palmer is making in the first
  column of p 273.
• Often we engage in a chain of behaviors and those
  behaviors are trained in a particular way (a
  codified strategy) for solving problems (e.g.
  addition, subtraction, etc. )
• Each completed link in the chain leads to the
  next (provides the stimulus conditions)
• Why does Palmer provide the rearranged example on
  the top of 273, second column?
• 362 1 2 2
• 784 4 8 5
• 4 9 3
• 8 6 4

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Finished the problem?

• Sometimes it is difficult to know when some
  problems are solved! (we often engage in checking
  behaviors ask someone else, recheck out
  calculations, etc.)

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What PSing does

• 7. Note the role of problems solving (273, 2nd
  col, bottom)
• PS behaviors strengthen the target response and
  weaken competing responses
• Prepotent The strongest response the one that
  is most likely emitted.
• In PSing we often have to weaken the first
  prepotent response and strengthen another response

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Overt vs. Covert

• 8. We have discussed the covert and overt
  distinction. Know how Dr. Palmer presents it and
  his general arguments.
• A response is always composed of covert and overt
  portions (the covert portion is what is commonly
  called the physiological portion neurons
  firing, etc.). Contingencies on the overt
  portion also change the covert portion.
• The covert or overt status of a response is
  really determined by others abilities to sense
  the response
• e.g. someone whispering to someone else is
  covert to you.
• Responses produce stimulation (can be overt or
  covert) e.g. moving lips, diaphragm etc.
  produces sounds we call language
• Nearly all responses produce some sort of
  stimulation, this is called response-produced
  stimulation they function as any other
  stimulus, an SD, EO, CS, etc.

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Covert Responses

• 9. Know Palmers thoughts on how one should deal
  with covert responses.
• Covert responses play a role in human behavior
• Those responses, like all responses, are shaped
  up by experience
• Interpretation is used to describe the role
  those response have
• Interpretation means the known laws (operant and
  respondent conditioning) are extended to the
  covert level (vs. making up special mechanisms)

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Variability

• 10. What role does response variability have in
  problem solving?
• PS usually involves doing a response that you do
  not do initially (otherwise there would not be a
  problem!)
• Thus, variability is essential to PS ing.
• New responses (variable responses) are more
  likely to solve the problem

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Response variability

• 11. Know how response variability occurs in a
  problems solving situation.
• A problem situation is encountered
• A response occurs, but it is not successful in
  solving the problem
• That response undergoes extinction other
  responses come to strength (are emitted)
• The ones that lead closer to the solution are
  strengthened, those that dont are weakened
• The variability is caused by this extinction,
  new response cycle, until the target response
  occurs
• This type of trial and error learning is often
  used by inexperienced problem solvers, areas in
  which you have little knowledge, for non humans,
  etc.

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Stereotypy

• 12. Know the data related to reinforcement and
  stereotypy (279)
• A contingency will generate stereotypic
  behaviors.
• Arranged two keys for pigeons, only needed to
  peck each key four times. (Vogel and Annau
  Swartz)
• E.g. LLRRLRLR
• Humans exposed to a similar contingency did the
  same! Also, when asked to determine the
  contingency in effect (that is the rule, 4 times
  on each key). The participants who had done the
  task a number of times took about 750 trials to
  discover it (and only 1 if 4 got it). Naïve
  participants only took 600 trials (all of them
  got it!).
• Thus, the earlier learning reduced variability
  and made it harder to come up with the target
  response.

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Creativity

• 13. Although most contingencies foster
  stereotypic behaviors, you can also create
  contingencies that foster creative or variable
  behavior. Be able to describe that research and
  those types of contingencies (280-281)
• You can set contingencies for variability
  (sometimes called Creativity). Require a new
  response each time for reinforcer to be delivered
  and you will get varied responding
• Pryor, Haag OReilly set contingencies for
  porpoises fish for new behaviors. The
  porpoise of this was to foster creative or
  new tricks, and it did (many new ones and stunts
  trainers had not thought of!)
• Neuringer reinforced humans ( nonhumans) to
  simulate a random number generator and was
  successful

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Creativity SDs

• 14. Know that creativity may come under
  stimulus control (an SD may evoke it) (280-281)
• Neuringer found that variability could be brought
  under stimulus control.
• Others (Skinner) proposed that studying, writing,
  artistic behaviors could be fostered by only
  doing those behaviors in particular locations
  (e.g. at your desk, in your studio, etc.

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15. What is meant by Palmers statement (top,
281). prolonged response stereotypy arising
from one contingency can reduce response
variability when the contingencies change to
select for variability

• If you do something well, it will be easier to do
  other things well.
• Stereotypy makes variability more likely to occur
• I have no idea!
• One contingency can generate behaviors that
  interfere with another contingency
• One contingency generates behaviors that increase
  variability in other contingencies.

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Creativity SDs

• 15. What is meant by Palmers statement (top,
  281). prolonged response stereotypy arising
  from one contingency can reduce response
  variability when the contingencies change to
  select for variability
• Previous training, especially well trained
  behaviors, may interfere with learning new
  behaviors (as you are likely to emit those
  previously trained behaviors)

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Creativity SDs

• 16. Instructions, for humans can impact
  sensitivity to contingencies. Know this and
  examples in both directions (281)
• Humans use instructions to solve problems
  efficiently e.g. put together a bookcase, learn
  a computer application, etc. The instructions
  provide the necessary supplemental stimuli.
• Sometimes these instructions, or rules may
  control responding even if underlying
  contingencies change.
• For example you might tell participants that that
  they need to respond on two buttons in a
  experiment. They will continue to press two even
  if only one is now required for SR.
• However, you can give participants instructions
  to be alert to contingency changes (or give them
  that experience) and they will become more
  sensitive (vs. less as above) to the underlying
  contingencies in effect.

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Funky Fix and Mental Set

• 17. Know the difference between functional
  fixedness and mental set, as well as examples of
  each (281-285)
• Especially be familiar with Maiers two-string
  problem as it is very popular in PS work.
• Functional Fixedness you tend to use an object
  only in ways that you have been reinforced to use
  it (e.g. use chairs only for sitting, not as a
  stool)
• Mental set more general, the tendency to
  approach a problem in a particular way,
  neglecting alternative, more successful
  strategies.
• Note that pretraining can facilitate or inhibit
  successful PS ing. (e.g. given experience with
  others in novel ways, or not)
• Examples?? (from book)

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Creativity SDs

• Know the difference between functional fixedness
  and mental set, as well as examples of each
  (281-285)
• 2 4 7 11 16 22 ?
• 3 7 15 31 63 ?
• 1 2 6 21 88 ?
• 1 12 16 8 1 2 5 ?
• (mental set example)

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FF MS

• 18. Know the difference between functional
  fixedness and mental set, as well as examples of
  each (281-285)
• Maiers two string problem
• With two objects used, e.g. relay or electrical
  switch. For one object, they were told how it is
  used (e.g. electrical part). For most of the
  participants, the unknown object was used in
  solving Maiers problem.

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Creativity SDs

• 19. Know what resurgence and automatic chaining
  are and their relationship to successful PS ing
  (284-285)
• resurgence previously learned responses are
  emitted when the prepotent one weakens (undergoes
  extinction)
• Automatic Chaining a sequence of responses
  becomes part of ones repertoire as parts of the
  PS ing process become conditioned reinforcers and
  SDs.

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Creativity SDs

• 20. Know the role of conditioned reinforcers in
  PS ing (285) and why it is so critical to have
  knowledge in some area to be a good problem
  solver (285-286)
• Being an expert often means that specific
  situations will function as conditioned
  reinforcers (or not), as partial solutions to a
  problem (thus causing you to go on, or to change
  what you are doing)
• Novice may get into a good situation, but it does
  not function to evoke the rest of the solution
  (those other behaviors that lead to the target
  response).

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Creativity SDs

• 21. Know the various strategies that Palmer
  covers note that they are methods that help in
  problem solving (286-287)
• Means-end analysis reduce the distance between
  your current condition and the solution to the
  problem
• You start engaging in PSing behaviors that lead
  you closer to solution take apart Pencil
  sharpener, put wood together in rough shape of a
  stool, etc.

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Creativity SDs

• 21. Know the various strategies that Palmer
  covers note that they are methods that help in
  problem solving (286-287)
• Working backward
• If you know the solution state, you work from
  that final condition to all the steps required to
  get to that state. E.g. the place you need to get
  back to (directions) you plot your return trip as
  you leave.
• Math, know the solution, but not the process of
  getting there work backwards to learn the
  process

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Creativity SDs

• 21. Know the various strategies that Palmer
  covers note that they are methods that help in
  problem solving (286-287)
• Breaking a problem into parts
• Identify points along the path to the solution
  and work on each of those parts. E.g. writing an
  APA style paper (do individual parts), have a
  wedding, get through school, create a computer
  program.

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Creativity SDs

• 22. Know how Palmer discusses insight and some
  of the research related to this issue.
• We claim the solutions come suddenly and thus
  we call them insightful, but in reality, we
  overlook a history that is necessary for the
  solution.
• Kohler did research with chimps put food
  outside cage and gave two sticks must put them
  together to get food.
• Food out of reach champ had to stack boxes and
  climb up to reach food.
• Birch found that only chimps with appropriate
  experience were able to solve problems (Kohler
  did not control for this)

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• 23. Know what Epstein did with the pigeons,
  conducting an experiment similar to Kohler.
• Epstein trained pigeons to peck at a box and
  move it toward a target (green spot). The birds
  were also taught to climb on the box, and also
  trained to peck at a plastic banana for food.
• Then birds put into a chamber with banana our of
  reach and box in middle of room. The ones with
  the appropriate history (training) quickly solved
  the problem.
• Insightful???
• (Tape)

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A reinforced for climbing and pecking only.
B Reinforced for climbing, pecking and
pushing box aimlessly C Reinforced for
climbing, Pecking, and pushing box Toward a
target.