Chapter 4: Training and Conditioning Techniques

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Chapter 4 Training and Conditioning Techniques
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Reduce InjuryPrepare the Athlete
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Athletic Trainers and Strength and Conditioning
Coaches

• Cooperative relationship that serves to condition
  athletes in an effort to minimize injury and
  maximize performance
• Knowledge of flexibility, strength, and
  cardiorespiratory endurance is necessary
• Many strength coaches are certified through the
  National Strength and Conditioning Association

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• Athletic trainer may be called upon to review
  programs/make suggestions
• Take into consideration components of particular
  sport and injury prevention
• Rehabilitation of injuries is the responsibility
  of the athletic trainer
• Different settings (professional, college, high
  school) will require differing levels of
  supervision by the ATC

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Periodization in Training and Conditioning

• Traditional seasons no longer exist for serious
  athletes
• Periodization
• Achieve peak performance
• Decrease injuries and overtraining
• Program that spans various seasons
• Modify program relative to athletes needs

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Macrocycle

• Complete training cycle
• Seasonal approach based on preseason, in-season,
  and off-season
• Changes in intensity, volume, specificity of
  training occur in order to achieve peak levels of
  fitness for competition
• Broken into mesocycles (lasting weeks or months)

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Mesocycles

• Transition period
• Follows last competition (early off-season)
• Unstructured (escape rigors of training)
• Preparatory period
• Off-season
• Hypertropy/endurance phase (Low intensity with
  high volume)
• Allows for development of endurance base
• Lasts several weeks to 2 months
• Strength Phase
• Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)

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• Preparatory period (continued)
• Strength Phase
• Intensity and volume increase to moderate levels
• Power Phase (High intensity/ pre-season)
• Volume is decreased to allow adequate recovery
• Competition period
• May last a lt week or several months for seasonal
  sports
• High intensity, low volume, skill training
  sessions
• May incorporate microcycles (1-7 days)
• Designed to ensure peak on days of competition

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Cross Training

• Training for a sport with substitutions of
  alternative activities (carryover value)
• Useful in transition and preparatory periods
• Variety to training regimen
• Should be discontinued prior to preseason as it
  is not sport-specific

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Principles of Conditioning and Training

• Warm-up/Cool-down
• Motivation
• Overload and SAID principle
• Consistency/routine
• Progression

• Intensity
• Specificity
• Individuality
• Relaxation/Minimize Stress
• Safety

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Warm-up

• Precaution against unnecessary musculoskeletal
  injury and soreness
• May enhance certain aspects of performance
• Prepares body physiologically for physical work
• Stimulates cardiorespiratory system, enhancing
  circulation and blood flow to muscles
• Increases metabolic processes, core temperature,
  and muscle elasticity

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• General
• Activities which bring a general warming to the
  body(break a sweat)
• Not related to sport
• Specific
• Specific to sport
• Stretching, jogging, running, throwing, catching
• Should last 10-15 minutes resulting in effects
  that will last 45 minutes

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Cool-down

• Essential component of workout
• Bring body back to resting state
• 5-10 minutes in duration
• Often ignored
• Decreased muscle soreness following training if
  time used to stretch after workout

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Improving and Maintaining Flexibility

• Ability to move a joint(s) smoothly through a
  full range of motion (ROM)
• Decreased ROM results in
• Decreased performance capabilities
• Uncoordinated/awkward movements
• Predisposes athlete to injury
• Good flexibility is essential for successful
  physical performance
• Recommended by athletic trainers to prevent
  injury

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Factors That Limit Flexibility

• Bony structures
• Tissue approximation
• Excessive fat
• Muscle and tendon lengths
• Connective tissue
• Scarring and contractures
• Skin

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Range of Motion(ROM)

• Active range of motion dynamic flexibility
• Ability to move a joint with little resistance
• Passive range of motion static flexibility
• Motion of joint to end points without muscle
  contraction
• Must be able to move through unrestricted range
• Must have elasticity for additional stretch
  encountered during activity

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Agonist vs. Antagonist Muscles

• Joints are capable of multiple movements
• Example
• Quadriceps will extend knee with contraction
• Hamstrings will stretch during extension
• Quads (muscle producing movement) referred to as
  agonist
• Muscle undergoing stretch referred to as
  antagonist
• Agonist and antagonist work together to produce
  smooth coordinated movements

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Stretching Techniques

• Ballistic
• Bouncing movement in which repetitive
  contractions of agonist work to stretch
  antagonist muscle
• Spindles tighten instead of relax
• Possible soreness (soccer example)

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• Static stretching
• Passively stretching
• 6-8 second hold
• Go to point of pain and back off and hold for 30
  seconds (3 to 4 times)
• Controlled, less chance of injury
• Not dynamic

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• Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation
• Physical therapy for neuromuscular paralysis
• Slow-reversal-hold-relax
• Contract-relax
• Hold-relax
• Ten second push, ten second relax
• Best technique to improve flexibility
• Autogenic inhibition (push tension)
• Reciprocal inhibition (pull relax)

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Neurophysiological Basis of Stretching

• Stretch Reflex
• Muscle is placed on stretch(muscle spindle)
• Muscle spindles fire relaying info. to spinal
  cord
• Spinal cord relays message to golgi tendon and
  increases tension
• After 6 seconds golgi tendon organ (GTO) relays
  signal for muscle tension to decrease
• Prevents injury - protective mechanism

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• With static stretching golgi tendons are able to
  override impulses from muscle spindle following
  initial reflex resistance
• Allows muscle to remain stretched without injury
• PNF benefits greatly from these principles
• With slow-reversal hold technique, maximal
  contraction of muscle stimulates GTO reflex
  relaxation before stretch applied

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• Relaxation of antagonist during contraction
  autogenic inhibition
• During relaxation phase, antagonist is placed
  under stretch but assisted by agonist contraction
  to pull further
• Contraction elicits additional relaxation of
  antagonist (protect against injury)
• Referred to as reciprocal inhibition

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Flexibility vs. Strength

• Co-exist
• Muscle bound zero flexibility
• Strength training will provide individual with
  ability to develop dynamic flexibility through
  full range of motion
• Develop more powerful and coordinated movements

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Measuring Range of Motion

• Various devices have been designed to accommodate
  joint sizes and complexities of movement
• Goniometer most widely used device
• Protractor (degrees) that utilizes alignment of
  two arms parallel to longitudinal axis of two
  segments involved in motion
• Relatively accurate tool for measurement

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Flexibility, Muscular Strength, Endurance, and
Power
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Muscle Strength, Power, and Endurance

• Strength ability to generate force against
  resistance
• Power is the relationship between strength and
  time
• Muscular endurance repetitive muscular
  contractions (increase strength increase
  endurance

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Muscle Contractions

• Isometric contraction
• No length change occurs during contraction
• Pro quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab
• Con only works at one point in ROM
• Isotonic contraction
• Concentric- shortening of muscle with contraction
  in an effort to overcome more resistance
• Eccentric - lengthening of muscle with
  contraction because load is greater than force
  being produced
• Both are considered dynamic movements

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Fast Twitch vs. Slow Twitch

• Motor units with distinct metabolic and
  contractile capability
• Slow twitch (Type I)
• Fatigue resistant
• Time necessary to produce force is greater
• Long duration, aerobic type activities
• Generally major constituent of postural muscles

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• Fast twitch (Type II)
• Fatigue
• Anaerobic in nature
• High force in short amount of time
• Produce powerful movements
• A vs. B
• Individual make-up
• Muscles contain both types of fibers
• Muscle functioning impacts ratios (postural vs.
  powerful movement)
• Genetically determined
• Metabolic capabilities can change in response to
  training

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Factors that Determine Levels of Muscular Strength

• Hypertrophy vs. Atrophy
• Size of muscle function of diameter and number
  of fibers
• Neuromuscular efficiency
• Biomechanical factors
• Overtraining (psychologically, physiologically)
• Reversibility

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Physiology of Strength Development

• Three theories of muscle hypertrophy
• Increase in number of fibers
• Infusion of blood - transient hypertrophy
• Increase in protein myofilament number and size
• PROVEN
• Other enhancements due to training
• Increased noncontractile tissue strength, bone
  mineral content, aerobic/anaerobic enzymes,
  enhanced oxygen uptake

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Techniques of Resistance Training

• Progressive resistance exercise
• Overload principle must be applied
• Must work muscle at increasingly higher
  intensities to enhance strength over time
• If intensity of training does not increase, but
  training continues, muscle strength will be
  sustained

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Overload Principle

• Activity must be increased and upgraded
  constantly in order to gain a higher response
  from the body
• Work at or near maximum capacity
• Applicable to conditioning and training

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• Isometric Exercises
• Contraction where muscle length remains unchanged
• Muscle contraction that lasts 10 seconds and
  should be perform 5-10 times/daily
• Pro quick, effective, cheap, good for rehab
• Con only works at one point in ROM, produces
  spiking of blood pressure due to Valsalva
  maneuver

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• Progressive Resistance Exercises (Isotonic
  training)
• Shortening/lengthening
• Concentric vs. Eccentric
• Various types of equipment can be utilized
• (Free weights, machine weight)
• Spotter is necessary for free weight training to
  prevent injury, motivate partner and instruct on
  technique

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• Concentric and eccentric training should be
  incorporated for greatest strength improvement
• Concentric phase of lift should last 1-2 seconds,
  eccentric phase 2-4 seconds
• Variations exist between free and machine weight
  lifting
• Motion restrictions, levels of muscular control
  required, amount of weight that can be lifted

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• Terminology associated with weight training
• Repetitions
• Repetition maximum
• One repetition maximum
• Set
• Intensity
• Recovery period
• Frequency

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• When training should be able to perform 3 sets of
  6-8 repetitions
• Increases should occur in increments of 10
• 1 RM can be utilized measure maximum amount of
  weight that can be lifted - must be very careful
• Training of a particular muscle group should
  occur 3-4 times per week (not on successive days)

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Muscular Endurance vs. Strength

• Training for endurance enhances strength and vice
  versa
• Training for strength should involve lower
  repetitions at heavier weight
• Training for endurance requires lower weight at
  12-15 repetitions

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Isokinetic Training

• Muscle contraction at a constant velocity
• Maximal and constant resistance throughout the
  full range of motion
• Maximal effort Maximal strength gains
• Disadvantages
• Cost
• Need for maximal effort/motivation
• Rehab

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Circuit Training

• Combination of exercise stations
• 8 - 12 stations, 3 times through
• Design for different training goals
• Flexibility
• Calisthenics
• Aerobic exercise

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Calisthenic Strengthening Exercises

• Free exercise
• Isotonic training
• Gravitys involvement determines level of
  intensity
• Full range of motion, may incorporate holding
  phase
• Pull-ups, push-ups, back extensions, leg
  extensions

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Plyometric Exercise

• Rapid stretch, eccentric contraction followed by
  a rapid concentric contraction to create a
  forceful explosive movement
• Rate of stretch vs. magnitude
• Jumps, bounds, medicine ball throws
• Very technical training - skills must be learned
  with appropriate technique

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Training for the Female Athlete

• Critical for female athlete
• Significant hypertrophy is related to
  testosterone present within body
• Remarkable gains are experienced initially due to
  enhanced nervous system and muscle interaction
  (efficiency-not muscle bulk)
• Following initial gains, plateau occurs, with
  females

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• Males tend to continue to increase strength with
  training
• Critical difference is the ratio of strength to
  body fat
• Females have reduced strength to body weight
  ratio due to higher percentage of body fat
• Ratio can be enhanced through weight training and
  decrease in body fat percentage/increased lean
  weight

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Cardiorespiratory Endurance

• Perform whole body activities for extended period
  of time
• Performance vs. fatigue vs. injury
• Systems four components
• Heart
• Lungs
• Blood vessels
• Blood
• Improvements in endurance are the results of
  improvements in these 4 components

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• Aerobic capacity VO2max
• Increases in intensity require higher levels of
  oxygen consumption
• Inherit certain range of maximum aerobic capacity
• More active higher capacity
• Average value 45-60 ml O2/min/kg
• Three factors impact capacity
• External respiration
• Ventilatory process
• Gas transportation (most limiting factor)

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Impact on Heart

• Main pumping mechanism
• Increase exercise increased oxygen
  requirementincrease heart pumping
• Heart must gradually adapt to imposed demands but
  will reach steady state after 2-3 minutes of
  training
• Heart able to adapt through increases in heart
  rate and stroke volume which will enhance overall
  cardiac output

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• A training effect results with regard to cardiac
  output.
• Over the course of training, at a given
  intensity, stroke volume increases while heart is
  reduced
• Cardiac functioning becomes more efficient
  (hypertrophy of heart occurs)

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Energy Systems

• Various sports entail different energy demands
• Long distance running and swimming vs. sprinting
  and jumping
• ATP Immediate Energy Source
• ATP produced from glucose breakdown
• Glucose from blood or glycogen (muscle or liver)
  broken down to glucose converted to ATP
• Fat becomes utilized when glycogen stores depleted

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• Aerobic versus anaerobic
• Both generate ATP
• Initial ATP production from glucose occurs in
  muscle (without oxygen anaerobic)
• Transition to glucose and fat oxidation
  (requiring oxygen aerobic) to continue activity
• Generally both systems occur to a degree
  simultaneously
• Type of ATP production relative to intensity
• Short burst (high intensity) anaerobic
• Long duration (sustained intensity) aerobic

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Types of Training for Cardiorespiratory Endurance

• Continuous
• Mode (type of exercise) - must be aerobic in
  nature
• Frequency (at least 3 times/week)
• Duration(at least 20 minutes)
• Intensity (must elevate heart rate to 70 of
  maximum)

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• Interval training
• Intermittent activities involving periods of
  intense work and active recovery
• Must occur at 60-80 of maximal heart rate
• Allows for higher intensity training at short
  intervals over an extended period of time
• Most anaerobic sports require short burst which
  can be mimicked through interval training

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• Fartlek training
• Cross-country running that originated in Sweden
• Speed play
• Similar to interval training in the fact activity
  occurs over a specific period of time but pace
  and speed are not specified
• Consists of varied terrain which incorporates
  varying degrees of hills
• Dynamic form of training
• Must elevate heart rate to minimal levels to be
  effective
• Popular form of training in off-season

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• Equipment for Endurance Training
• Cost can vary from 2- 60,000
• Jump rope to treadmill and computers
• Fitness Assessments
• Provides coaching and athletic training personnel
  with information relative to fitness and
  preparedness
• Pre-testing and post-testing format should be
  utilized
• Can assess all facets of training and
  conditioning with established tests and protocols