Nuclear Energy

1
Nuclear Energy

• By Oriel Wilson
• Race Poverty and the Urban Environment
• Professor Raquel R. Pinderhughes
• Urban Studies Program
• San Francisco State University
• Spring 2003

Public has permission to use the material
herein, but only if author, course, university
and professor are credited.
2
Objective

• This presentation focuses on the entire nuclear
  fuel cycle. It is designed to explain the
  negative effects caused by the use of and
  production of nuclear energy. It takes you
  through the cradle to grave lifecycle of nuclear
  energy, paying particular attention to the
  social, environmental, and public health impacts
  of the processes associated with nuclear energy.

3
Overview

• We will start with a brief introduction, then
  extraction and processing of uranium. We then
  discuss the distribution of uranium to enrichment
  facilities, and the enrichment process. This is
  followed by a more detailed explanation of
  nuclear uses for weapons and electricity
  production. Following each will be a discussion
  of distribution and consumption. Finally, we
  will end with an analysis of nuclear waste.

4
Brief History

• Nuclear energy was first discovered in 1934 by
  Enrico Fermi. The first nuclear bombs were built
  in 1945 as a result of the infamous Manhattan
  Project. The first plutonium bomb, code-named
  Trinity, was detonated on July 16, 1945 in New
  Mexico. On August 6th 1945 the first uranium
  bomb was detonated over Hiroshima. Three days
  later a plutonium bomb was dropped on Nagasaki.
  There is over 200,000 deaths associated with
  these detonations. Electricity wasnt produced
  with nuclear energy until 1951.

Source The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age
by John May
5
Radiation

• Radiation is the result of an unstable atom
  decaying to reach a stable state. Half-life is
  the average amount of time it takes for a sample
  of a particular element to decay half way.
  Natural radiation is everywhereour bodies,
  rocks, water, sunshine. However, manmade
  radiation is much stronger. There are currently
  37 radioactive elements in the periodic table26
  of them are manmade and include plutonium and
  americium (used in household smoke detectors).

Source http//theodoregray.com/PeriodicTable/inde
x.html
6
Types of Radiation

• There are several different kinds of radiation
  alpha radiation, beta radiation, gamma rays, and
  neutron emission. Alpha radiation is the release
  of two protons and two neutrons, and normally
  occurs in fission of heavier elements. Alpha
  particles are heavy and cannot penetrate human
  skin, but are hazardous if ingested. Beta
  radiation is when a neutron is changed to a
  proton or visa versa, beta radiation is what is
  released from this change. Beta particles can
  penetrate the skin, but not light metals. Gamma
  rays is a type of electromagnetic radiation which
  is left over after alpha and beta are released
  and include X-rays, light, radio waves, and
  microwaves.

Source The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age
by John May
7
Penetration of Radioactive particles
Source http//www.ratical.org/radiation/NRBE/NRBE
3.html
8
Dosage

• Radiation is sometimes called ionizing radiation
  because ions are created with the passage of the
  alpha, beta, and gamma rays. The effect of
  radiation is on a cellular levelchanging its
  functionality (causing cancer or inherited birth
  defects) or killing it. Depending on the
  information source, radiation doses are measured
  in rems or sievert, in any case 100 rem one
  sievert. An exposure of 100 Sv will cause death
  within days, 10-50 Sv will cause death from
  gastrointestinal failure in one to two weeks, and
  with an exposure of 3-5 Sv will cause red bone
  marrow damage half of the time. Severe affects
  consist of burns, vomiting, hemorrhage, blood
  changes, hair loss, increased susceptibility to
  infection, and death. With lower levels of
  exposure symptoms are cancer (namely thyroid,
  leukemia, breast, and skin cancers), but also
  include eye cataracts. The radiation can also
  affect DNA causing mutations that change
  individuals genes and can be passed on to future
  generations. The current occupational dose
  recommended by the International Commission for
  Radiological Protection is 50 mSv per year. The
  average radiation dose per year for non-nuclear
  workers is about one mSv.

Source The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age
by John May and Energy and the Environment by
James A. Fay and Dan S. Golomb.
9
Uranium

• Uranium is usually mined similarly to other
  heavy metalsunder ground or in open pitsbut
  other methods can also be used. After the
  uranium is mined it is milled near the excavation
  site using leaching processes. The mining
  process explained here is a combination of two of
  major mines in Australia. Then we will look at
  the Navajo uranium miners who were some of the
  first uranium miners. Next I will explain some
  of the other community and environmental impacts
  associated with the mining processes.

10
Mining

• Uranium ore is usually located aerially
  core samples are then drilled and
  analyzed by geologists. The uranium ore is
  extracted by means of drilling and blasting.
  Mines can be in either open pits or underground.
  Uranium concentrations are a small percentage of
  the rock that is mined, so tons of tailings waste
  are generated by the mining process.

Sources http//www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html
and http//www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diag
ram.pdf and http//www.world-nuclear.org/education
/mining.htm
11
Milling Leaching

• The ore is first crushed into smaller bits, then
  it is sent through a ball mill where it is
  crushed into a fine powder. The fine ore is mixed
  with water, thickened, and then put into leaching
  tanks where 90 of the uranium ore is leached out
  with sulfuric acid. Next the uranium ore is
  separated from the depleted ore in a multistage
  washing system. The depleted ore is then
  neutralized with lime and put into a tailings
  repository.

Sources http//www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html
and http//www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diag
ram.pdf
12
Yellowcake

• Meanwhile, the uranium solution is filtered, and
  then goes through a solvent extraction process
  that includes kerosene and ammonia to purify the
  uranium solution. After purification the uranium
  is put into precipitation tanksthe result is a
  product commonly called yellowcake.

Sources http//www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html
and http//www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diag
ram.pdf
13
Transportation

• In the final processes the yellow cake is heated
  to 800Celcius which makes a dark green powder
  which is 98 U3O8. The dark green powder is put
  into 200 liter drums and loaded into shipping
  containers and are shipped overseas to fuel
  nuclear power plants.

Sources http//www.anawa.org.au/mining/index.html
and http//www.energyres.com.au/ranger/mill_diag
ram.pdf
14
Mining Leaders

• Australia and Canada are currently the biggest
  Uranium miners. The aforementioned process that
  takes place in Australia is exported because
  Australia does not have a nuclear energy program.
  The mining in Australian is primarily open pit,
  while the mining in Canada is mostly underground.
  Following is two chartsone is the major uranium
  producing countries, the other is of the major
  corporations that actually do the mining.

Source http//www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uwai.ht
ml
15
Production in 2000
Source http//www.world-nuclear.org/search/index.
htm
16
Other Mining Methods

• Another method of uranium mining is
  in-situ leaching. This method is used
  because there is reduced hazards to the employees
  of the mines, it is less expensive, and there are
  no large tailings deposits. However, there are
  also several significant disadvantages including
  ground water contamination, unknown risks
  involving the leaching liquid reacting to the
  other minerals in the deposit, and an inability
  to restore the leaching site back to natural
  conditions after the leaching process is done.

Source http//www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uisl.ht
ml
17
In-Situ Leaching
Source http//www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uisl.ht
ml
18
Community Environmental Impacts

• Communities located near the mines and the
  workers in the mines are most heavily impacted by
  the uranium mining industry. The Navajo Indians
  in Arizona were the first uranium miners back in
  the 1940s to the 1970s. Early on, little was
  understood about the dangers of uranium exposure,
  and as a result there have been many illnesses
  related to the mining. Despite safety efforts,
  uranium miners are still at risk. In addition,
  tailings dams have broken and contaminated
  drinking water in the communities near the mines.

19
The Navajo Miners

• Some of the first uranium miners were Navajo
  Indians in New Mexico and Arizona. In the
  article by Timothy Benally Navajo Uranium Miners
  Fight for Compensation, Benally explains how the
  Navajo people came to know the dangers of uranium
  exposure and how they are getting compensated.
  Vanadium mining started there around 1918, but
  uranium mining did not start until after the
  Second World War. Before uranium was discovered
  there, it was not clear what this element was,
  and as a result the tailings from the Vanadium
  (that contained high levels of uranium) were not
  stored properlyleading to excessive human
  exposure and environmental impacts on the water
  supply and food production. To make things
  worse, once the element was discovered, there was
  a large prospecting movement throughout the
  reservation. In addition, the major corporations
  that ran these mines, the Vanadium Corporation of
  America and the Kerr-McGee, companies paid
  unfairly low wages and did not warn the workers
  of the dangers of the uranium. It was not until
  people got ill and were dieing that the workers
  and their families found out. In 1960 the
  workers and their families started the Uranium
  Radiation Victims Committee, which sought to warn
  other workers and families of the danger of
  exposure to uranium, but because there was little
  alternative employment, many kept their jobs in
  the mines anyway. In 1990, a bill was passed in
  congress to compensate radiation exposure
  victims, and since then the Office of Navajo
  Uranium Workers has sought to identify exposed
  workers and to provide medical care. There are
  currently 2,450 registered workers, and 412
  recorded deaths of workers.

Source http//www.inmotionmagazine.com/miners.htm
l
20
Floyd Frank

• Floyd lost several brothers and other relatives
  to uranium related illnesses. He witnessed
  calves that had been born defected and sheep that
  have had lung problems. His view is that the US
  government wanted to see what happens to people
  exposed in these conditions. The water has been
  contaminated and, through the tributaries, so has
  the land. He says that the US government will
  only compensate someone if they have lung cancer,
  but he says that his brothers had sores all over
  their bodies .

Source http//www.inmotionmagazine.com/brugge.htm
l
21
Donald Yellowhorse

• Donald Yellowhorse is a resident of Cove, Arizona
  . He recalls piles of uranium around his house
  and in his town. He says that some people had
  their foundations of their houses built with the
  rock, and that the debris was dumped directly
  upstream from the drinking water so that everyone
  was exposed. He remembers that the effects
  took some time to notice and that by the time
  effects were observed it was too late to turn
  back.

Source http//www.inmotionmagazine.com/brugge.htm
l
22
Uranium miners today

• Uranium threatens the health of mine workers
  and the communities surrounding the mines.
  According to the International Physicians for the
  Prevention of Nuclear War, uranium mining has
  been responsible for the largest collective
  exposure of workers to radiation. One estimate
  puts the number of workers who have died of lung
  cancer and silicosis due to mining and milling
  alone at 20,000. Mine workers are principally
  exposed to ionizing radiation from radioactive
  uranium and the accompanying radium and radon
  gases emitted from the ore. Ionizing radiation is
  the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that
  extends from ultraviolet radiation to cosmic
  rays. This type of radiation releases high energy
  particles that damage cells and DNA structure,
  producing mutations, impairing the immune system
  and causing cancers.

Source http//www.anawa.org.au/health/oc-health.h
tml
23
Australia Tailings Spills

• According to a Planet Ark article online,
  Australia Uranium Mines Come Under Spotlight,
  Australia currently has four uranium
  minesRanger, Beverley, Honeymoon, and Olympic
  Damand they have plans for six more. The
  article is about an inquiry that the Australian
  government is making into the mining business at
  the request of the Aborigines and environmental
  groups. In 2002 there were two incidents
  involving the Ranger mine in which the stockpile
  with low-grade ore got downstream, and was not
  immediately reported. In May of 2002 the
  Beverley mine spilled uranium-contaminated water
  for the fourth time. The Beverley mine is owned
  by a subsidiary of a US company called General
  Atomics. Even worse than the Beverly mine record
  is that of Olympic Dam in which hundreds of
  thousands of liters of uranium mining slurry was
  leaked from a storage tankfor the seventh time.

Source http//www.planetark.org/dailynewsstory.cf
m/newsid/16505/story.htm
24
USA Tailings Spills

• On July 16, 1979 the largest spill of
  radioactive isotopes in the United States, other
  than weapons testing was in the form of uranium
  tailings erupted from the Church Rock Dam. The
  broken dam released eleven hundred tons of mill
  waste and ninety million gallons of contaminated
  liquid in the Rio Puerco area immediately
  effecting over 350 Navajo ranching families, and
  endangering the water supply of New Mexico,
  Arizona, Las Vegas, and Los Angelesincluding
  Lake Mead. The cause of the breach was a dam
  that was not built to codean accident that could
  have been prevented if the proper authorities had
  done their jobs. The United Nuclear Corporation,
  a corporation with a history of leaks, owned the
  dam. They have acknowledged fifteen tailing
  spills between 1959 and 1977seven of those were
  dam breaksand at least ten of the spills got
  into major water systems.

Source Killing Our Own by Harvey Wasserman and
Norman Soloman. http//www.ratical.org/radiation/K
illingOurOwn/
25
Overview

• uranium mining, a polluting activity that
  devastates large areas. Uranium ore sometimes
  contains as little as 500 grams recoverable
  uranium per 1000 kilograms of earth. So, enormous
  amounts of rock have to be dug up, crushed and
  chemically processed to extract the uranium. The
  remaining wastes, which still contain large
  amounts of radioactivity, remain at the mines.
  These "tailings" are often stored in a very poor
  condition, resulting in the contamination of
  surface- and groundwater.

Source http//www.antenna.nl/wise/
26
Nuclear Fuel Cycle

• We will start the nuclear fuel cycle with a brief
  explanation of how nuclear energy works, the
  enrichment process, and then power reactors.
  Following will be information on Three Mile
  Island and Chernobyl, the risk of reactor leaks,
  and the impacts on the communities and the
  environment. Then we will discuss the nuclear
  weapons program, including the use of depleted
  uranium, Hiroshima and Nagasaki, weapons testing,
  and the effects on soldiers, victims,
  communities, and the environment.

Source http//www.sonic.net/kerry/uranium.html
27
Key terms

• Nuclear energysynonymous with atomic energy, is
  the energy produced by fission or fusion of
  atomic nuclei.
• Atomsare made of three main parts protons,
  neutrons, and electrons . The protons and
  neutrons make up the center of the atom while the
  electrons orbit around the center .
• Atomic numberthe number of protons in an element
  that identifies it.
• Isotopeif an atom has a different number of
  neutrons from protons. Isotopes, measured by
  their total weight called mass number are the
  sum of neutrons and protons. Some isotopes are
  unstable and will decay to reach a stable
  statethese elements are considered radioactive.
• Ionif an atom has a different number of electron
  from protons.
• Fission occurs when an atoms nucleus splits
  apart to form two or more different atoms. The
  most easily fissionable elements are the isotopes
  are uranium 235 and plutonium 239. Fissionable
  elements are flooded with neutrons causing the
  elements to split. When these radioactive
  isotopes split, they form new radioactive
  chemicals and release extra neutrons that create
  a chain reaction if other fissionable material is
  present. While Uranium, atomic number 92, is the
  heaviest naturally occurring element, many other
  elements can be made by adding protons and
  neutrons with particle accelerators or nuclear
  reactors. In general, the fission process uses
  higher numbered elements.
• Fusionis the combining of one or more
  atomsusually isotopes of hydrogen, which are
  deuterium and tritium. Atoms naturally repel
  each other so fusion is easiest with these
  lightest atoms. To force the atoms together it
  takes extreme pressure and temperature, this can
  be produced by a fission reaction.

Source The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age
by John May and Energy and the Environment by
James A. Fay and Dan S. Golomb.
28
Conversion

• To enrich uranium it must be in the gas form of
  UF6. This is called conversion. The conversion
  diagram shown here is from Honeywell. First the
  yellow cake is converted to uranium dioxide
  through a heating process (this step was also
  mentioned in the mining process). Then anhydrous
  hydrofluoric acid is used to make UF4. Next the
  UF4 is mixed with fluorine gas to make uranium
  hexafluoride. This liquid is stored in steel
  drums and crystallizes.

Source http//www.gat.com/converdyn/dfcp.html
29
Enrichment

• Uranium enrichment increases the amount of U235
  in comparison to U238. Domestic power plants use
  a mixture that is 3-5 U235, while highly
  enriched uranium is generally used for weapons,
  some research facilities, and naval reactors.
  Domestic reactors usually require fuel in the
  form of uranium dioxide and weapons use the
  enriched mix in the form of a metal. The
  conversion and enrichment process is very
  dangerous because not only is the uranium
  hexafluoride radioactive, it is also chemically
  toxic. In addition, if the uranium hexafluoride
  comes in contact with moisture it will release
  another very toxic chemical called hydrofluoric
  acid. There have been numerous accidents during
  the conversion and enrichment process. Depleted
  uranium is the waste that is generated from the
  enrichment process.

Source http//www.anawa.org.au/chain/enrichment.h
tml
30
Fuel Fabrication

• After being enriched, the UF6 is taken to a fuel
  fabrication facility that presses the powder into
  small pellets. The pellets are put into long
  tubes. These tubes are called fuel rods. A fuel
  assembly is a cluster of these sealed rods. Fuel
  assemblies go in the core of the nuclear reactor.
  It takes approximately 25 tonnes of fuel to
  power one 1000 MWe reactor per year. The picture
  on the right is a fuel assembly.

Source http//www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc
.htm
31
Transportation

• Radioactive materials are transported
  from the milling location to the
  conversion location, then from the
  conversion location to the enrichment location,
  then from the enrichment location to the to the
  fuel fabrication facility, and finally to the
  power plant. These materials are transported in
  special containers by specialized transport
  companies. People involved in the transport
  process are trained to respond to emergencies.
  In the US, Asia, and Western Europe transport is
  mainly by truck, and in Russia mainly by train.
  Intercontinental transport is usually by ship,
  and sometimes by air. Since 1971 there has been
  over 20,000 shipments with no incidents and
  limited operator exposure.

Source http//www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf20pri
nt.htm Picture http//www.ocrwm.doe.gov/wat/facts
.shtml
32
Nuclear Reactors

• There are usually several hundred fuel
  assemblies in a reactor core. There are
  several types of reactors, but they
  all use a controlled fission process with
  a moderator like water or graphite.
  During the fission process, plutonium is
  created and half of the plutonium also fissions
  accounting for a third of the energy. The
  fission process makes heat that is converted to
  energy (see following diagrams). Pictured above
  is the Diablo Canyon reactor in California.

Source http//www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc
.htm
Source http//www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc
.htm
Source http//www.world-nuclear.org/education/nfc
.htm
33
Electricity Consumption

• 1-3) power is generated or imported. 4) high
  voltage power lines make up the grid that
  connects power generators and neighborhood
  substations. 5) substation steps down the power
  and connects to the distribution system. 6) the
  distribution systems link to most customers.

Source http//www.pge.com/006_news/006c1_elec_sys
.shtml
34
Reactor Types

• PRWPressurized Water Reactordoes not boil, but
  uses the pressure of the water to heat a
  secondary source of water that generates
  electricity. Most popular (accounts for 65 of
  reactors world wide). Considered a light water
  reactor.
• BRWBoiling Water Reactorboils water (coolant)
  that makes steam to turn turbines. Conducive to
  internal contamination. Also considered a light
  water reactor.
• RBMKGraphite-moderated pressure tube
  boiling-water reactor similar to BWR but uses
  graphite and oxygen. Complex and difficult to
  examine.
• CANDUCanadian Deuterium UraniumDoesnt use
  enriched fuel. Has lots of tubes and internal
  contamination issues.
• MagnoxGas cooled reactor. Cooled with carbon
  dioxide or helium, and uses natural uranium. (UK
  and France).
• AGRAdvanced Gas-cooledalso cooled with carbon
  dioxide or helium. Uses enriched uranium. (UK).
• Fast Breederhigh temperature gas reactor. Uses
  U235, U238, and Plutonium 239. Very dangerous
  because it uses liquid sodium in the primary
  circuit and in inflammable with air and explosive
  with water.

Source www.world-nuclear.org/
35
Pressurized Water Reactor
Source http//www.uraniumsa.org/
36
Russian RBMK
Source http//www.world-nuclear.org/info/chernoby
l/inf07.htm
37
Reactor Hazards

• Reactor pose a serious threat radiation
  threatespecially to the employees and
  surrounding communities. Recently the New York
  times featured an article Extraordinary Reactor
  Leak Gets the Industries Attention. The
  implication is that if this reactor can leak, so
  can others. Typically, the reactors develop
  boric acid under their lidswhich eats away at
  the steel encasement (fixable), but this leak is
  in at the bottom of a reactor. In an article
  featured on CorpWatch, Bechtels Nuclear
  Nightmares talks about a reactor that the
  Bechtel corporation built in San Onofrethats
  been shut down since 1992 for lack of safety
  upgrades. The problem is that there is no place
  to permanently send the reactor to and is a risk
  because it was built on a fault line. Three
  Mile Island and Chernobyl are two of the worst
  incidences of reactor breaches and are explained
  in the following slides.

Source www.nytimes.com/2003/05/01/national/01NUK
E.html Source www.corpwatch.org/issues/PRT.jsp
38
Three Mile Island

• Three Mile Island is a pair of PRWs.
  The second one was built in a hurry for tax
  purposes (started operation on
  December 30, 1798 to meet deadline). On
  March 28, 1979, the Pilot Operated
  Relief Valve was stuck open and caused pressure
  to be released from the primary cooling system.
  The fuel rods came apart and radioactive material
  discharged into the sky. Two days later 3,500
  pregnant women and children were evacuated.
  Although there were no official instructions to
  do so, many others left as well. Numerous
  residents in the aftermath developed various
  cancers and thyroid diseases.

Source The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age
by John May picture http//www.libraries.psu.edu
/crsweb/tmi/tmi.htm
39
Chernobyl

• Chernobyl had the RBMK design. In an
  experiment, technicians let the power of
  reactor 4 fall, and on April 26, 1986 the
  result was rapid power levels rising inside
  the core melting fuel and causing a reactor
  containment breachin addition to an internal
  hydrogen explosion. The top of the reactor blew
  off and spewed radioactive material into the
  atmosphere for 10 days.

Source The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age
by John May Picture http//www.chernobyl.co.uk/
40
Health Impacts

• Thirty people died in direct relation to the
  accident. They were the workers in the plant and
  the people who assisted in the cleanup.
  Approximately 2,500 additional deaths were
  related to the accident. Since the accident rates
  of Thyroid cancer has risen significantly. The
  rate of thyroid cancer in children 15 years and
  younger increase from 4 to 6 per million to 45
  per million in the Ukraine region between 1986 to
  1997 (compared to 1981 to 1985). 64 of these
  cases were in the most contaminated regions.

Source http//www.chernobyl.co.uk/
41
Community Impacts

• 116,000 people were evacuated from 1990 to 1995
  and 210,000 were resettled. Major infrastructure
  had to be rebuilt. There was also a shortage of
  electricity. Agricultural activities had to be
  reduced, which lead to a reduction in income.

Source http//www.chernobyl.co.uk/
42
Environmental Impacts

• Radioactive fall out spread throughout the
  Ukraine and Europe, and eventually the whole
  northern hemisphere. In the local ecosystem (10
  km radius) coniferous tress and small mammals
  died. The natural environment is recovering but
  there may be long-term genetic effects.

Source http//www.chernobyl.co.uk/
43
Locations of Facilities
Source http//www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three/maps/in
dex.html
44
Weapons

• Nuclear weapons fall under two
  categoriesfission weapons and fusion weapons.
  Fission is splitting the nucleus of an atom into
  two or more elements, which causes a huge amount
  of energy to be released. In addition if there
  is left over neutrons they will cause fission in
  other elementssustaining a chain reaction.
  Fusion is almost the reverse because it requires
  the putting together of two nuclei. The Hydrogen
  bomb is a fusion weapon, while weapons that use
  U235 and Pu239 are fission weapons. A
  thermonuclear weapon detonates in three steps
  fission chain reaction, fusion reaction, and then
  fission again. When a thermonuclear weapon
  explodes, there is an explosion of neutrons and
  gamma rays that causes a silent flash of heat and
  light, followed by the extreme pressure of a
  mushroom cloud that raises millions of tons of
  earth resulting in nuclear fallout.

Source The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age
by John May
45
Weapons Production

• Production plants involved in the manufacturing
  of weapons have also done significant harm to the
  environment and surrounding communities. Because
  the US was in such a hurry to make as many
  nuclear weapons as possible, there are many
  severely contaminated environments surrounding
  these sites. Of special note are Hanover
  Washington (evacuated in 1943), Rocky Flats
  Colorado (plutonium spontaneously igniting cause
  two major fires), and Fernald Ohio (contaminated
  ground water). All three of these sites are
  currently in the process of being cleaned up.

Source Michael E. Long Half-life The Leathal
Legacy of Americas Nuclear Waste National
Geographic July 2002. Source
www.fernald.gov.pfd
46
Trinity

• In New Mexico on July 16, 1945 was Trinity test,
  the first atomic explosion. The Trinity test
  spread radioactive material over a 300 square
  mile area, including Santa Fe, Las Vegas, and
  Trinidad (Colorado). Later two bodies were
  discovered 20 miles from the detonation
  locationthe couple had been living in a nearby
  canyon in an adobe house.

Source The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age
by John May
47
Hiroshima Nagasaki

• The Hiroshima bomb was nicknamed little
  boy (on the left) and was detonated on
  August 6, 1945 killing approximately 140,000
  by the end of that yearand an estimated total
  of 200,000 altogether. Fat Man (on the right)
  was dropped three days later on Nagasaki killing
  approximately 70,000 people. Entire families
  were wiped out. The effects of the radiation
  caused birth defects in some of the survivors
  children, while others could no longer have
  babies. The physical, psychological, and
  environmental impacts of these atrocities can
  hardly be put into words.

Source http//www.csi.ad.jp/ABOMB/
48
Hiroshimabefore
Source http//www.aracnet.com/pdxavets/1259a.gif

49
Hiroshimaafter
Source http//www.aracnet.com/pdxavets/1260a.gif

50
Hiroshimaafter

• This picture was taken by a US army medic named
  Henry Dittner in October 1945.

Source http//www.aracnet.com/pdxavets/hiro3.htm

51
Weapons Testing

• Since 1945 there has been 2,050 nuclear weapons
  tests world wide. This picture is of Dog Shot
  in the Nevada desert in 1951. The second series
  of tests, the first series with large scale
  troops present.

Source http//armscontrol.org/act/1998_05/ffmy9
8.asp, http//www.aracnet.com/pdxavets/naavmed.
htm (and picture)
52
Health Impacts

• The morbidity study for Crossroads contains
  data received from 1,572 veterans of the 42,000
  participating veterans. This represents a sample
  size of 3.74 . The average death age of the 380
  deceased veterans is 57 years. The incident of
  all types of cancers in deceased Crossroads
  Veterans is 59.
• The Incidence of all types of cancer in the 1572
  reporting Veterans is 35.
• The leading cancer types, ranging from 23 down
  to 6, are skin, prostate, lymphoma, lung,
  urinary, colon, and esophagus.
• These percentages for the most part are seen in
  data on Ranger, Greenhouse, Buster-Jangle,
  Trinity, Tumbler-Snapper, Upshot-Knothole,
  Castle, and Redwing. Information from veterans
  from other tests is needed before an analysis can
  be performed.
• Further study and data is needed to isolate
  target area, ie, tests, units, ships.

Quoted from http//www.aracnet.com/pdxavets/naav
med.htm
53
Environmental Community Impacts

• Nuclear weapons devastate large areas of land
  with a forceful blast and intense heat. The land
  around the blast zones are contaminated with
  radioactive debris. The mushroom clouds break up
  slowly, and travel with weather patterns which
  distributes fallout across the globe. Many of
  the tests focus in rural, mainly uninhabited
  areas, and as a result disproportionately affect
  indigenous and other peoples living in these
  rural areas. Other important test sites that
  have drastically impacted indigenous peoples
  include the Marshall Islands (US) and Mururoa
  (France).

54
Weapons Transportation

• Another significant threat is planes armed with
  these weapons can (and have) crashed and
  submarines have also sunk into the ocean. In
  addition there have been incidents in which
  material has just been dumped as well. May
  estimates that there are 60 nuclear weapons and
  10 reactors on the ocean floor from submarines,
  plane crashes, and dumping. Although very strong
  casings likely guard them, the casings will
  eventually corrode resulting in radioactive
  contamination of our ocean and marine life.

Source The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age
by John May
55
Depleted Uranium

• Depleted uranium is whats left over from the
  enrichment process and is radioactive. Uranium
  is a heavy metal that can easily penetrate amour.
  Depleted uranium is currently being used in Iraq,
  and was used in Kosovo, the Gulf War, and Bosnia.
  When a depleted uranium burns, radioactive
  particles are release into the air. Depleted
  uranium is also a toxic hazard.

Source http//www.cbc.ca/news/indepth/background/
du.html
56
Impacts

• Jerry Wheat was hit with friendly fire during the
  Gulf war and suffered mysterious ailments when he
  returned home. When the shrapnel was removed it
  was discovered that is was radioactive.

Source http//www.tv.cbc.ca/national/pgminfo/du/i
ndex.html
DU has been blamed for a number of leukemia
cases among former Balkans peacekeepers The
Iraqi authorities claim that DU is responsible
for a marked increase in cancers
Source http//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/286075
9.stm
57
Nuclear Waste

• There four different kinds of waste High-level
  (spent fuel and plutonium waste), transuranic
  (contaminated tools and clothes), low and mixed
  low-level (hazardous waste from hospitals), and
  uranium mill tailings. In the US there is
  approximately 91 million gallons of high-level
  waste, 11.3 million cubic feet of transuranic
  waste, 472 million cubic feet of low and mixed
  low level waste, and 265 million tons of uranium
  tailings.

Source Michael E. Long Half-life The Leathal
Legacy of Americas Nuclear Waste National
Geographic July 2002.
58
Storage

• Many facilities store their own waste on site,
  but they are quickly running out of space. Other
  sites are in the process of being cleaned, but
  there is no place to store the waste. Part of
  the problem is the half-life. Half-life is how
  long it takes for an unstable element to decay
  half way. Uranium 238 takes 4.5 billion years.
  Typically, after ten half-lives the element is
  considered safe. Nuclear waste lacks permanent
  safe storage. Temporary storage is being
  proposed for the Skull Valley Goshute Indian
  reservation, and permanent storage may be in
  Yucca mountain. Mean while waste and tailings
  are pilling up.

Source Michael E. Long Half-life The Leathal
Legacy of Americas Nuclear Waste National
Geographic July 2002.
59
Skull Valley Goshutes

• According to the Skull Valley Goshute Indian
  website the Goshute Indians in Utah recently made
  an agreement with a private utility to
  temporarily store 40,000 metric tons of spent
  nuclear fuel. The Goshute reservation is 18,000
  acres, and already surrounded by other polluting
  industries. To the south of the reservation is
  the Dougway Proving Groundsa government chemical
  and biological weapons testing site. Also to the
  south is the Intermountain Power Project, which
  mainly makes coal-fired electricity for
  California. To the east is a government
  depository of nerve gas, and to the northeast is
  a low-level radioactive disposal site and toxic
  waste incinerator. Finally, in the north is a
  magnesium production plant. On the Skull Valley
  Goshute website it is stated that since the
  reservation is already surrounded by hazardous
  facilities, and after careful consideration and
  consultation with the government, scientists, and
  corporations, they have entered into this
  agreement.

Source http//www.skullvalleygoshutes.org/
60
Moab, Utah

• This is a picture of a ten-million
  ton pile of uranium tailings.
  The pile is right next to the
  Colorado River, and leaks
  ammonia into it threatening the
  fish. The owners of the pile when
  bankrupt, so no the citizens of Moab are waiting
  for the Department of Energy to clean it up. The
  clean up will cost an estimated 64 million
  dollars.

Source http//magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/02
07/feature1/zoom3.html
61
Yucca Mountain

• Yucca Mountain located in southern Nevada.
  Although this location has not been built yet,
  the plan is to have the waste buried deep in the
  mountain. Waste would be transported from all
  over the country in specially design railroad
  cars and truck trailers. The waste would then be
  repackaged for final burial. This plan is highly
  controversial.

Source http//magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/02
07/feature1/zoom3.html Picture www.ocrwm.doe.gov

62
Impacts

• Radioactive waste is highly dangerous to humans
  and the environment. Because the waste will
  remain radioactive for so long, it will remain to
  be a threat for thousands of years.

63
Conclusion

• Overall, nuclear energy disproportionately
  effects rural communities and the communities
  near nuclear facilities. Uranium mining and
  bombing are particularly detrimental to the
  environment. Further, the effects of radiation
  (cancer, illness, and death) are significant. If
  you find yourself in a situation where you are
  being exposed to radiation, shield yourself from
  the blast, and then move as far away from the
  detonation area as possible (otherwise remain
  indoors).

Source Ready.gov
64
US locations
Source Killing Our Own by Harvey Wasserman and
Norman Soloman. http//www.ratical.org/radiation/K
illingOurOwn/
65
Sources
The Green Peace Book of the Nuclear Age by John
May
Atomic Veterans website http//www.aracnet.com/p
dxavets/
WISE http//www.antenna.nl/wise/uranium/uisl.html

WWW A bomb museum http//www.csi.ad.jp/ABOMB/
Navajo Indian Miners http//www.inmotionmagazine.c
om/brugge.html
DU article http//news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/in_depth/28
60759.stm
Arms Control website http//armscontrol.org/
Ready.gov
UK Chernobyl site http//www.chernobyl.co.uk/
TMI picture http//www.libraries.psu.edu/crsweb/t
mi/tmi.htm
66
Sources cont.
Source Michael E. Long Half-life The Lethal
Legacy of Americas Nuclear Waste National
Geographic July 2002.
National Geographic waste article (online version
of above) http//magma.nationalgeographic.com/ngm
/0207/feature1/zoom3.html Yucca Mountain Picture
www.ocrwm.doe.gov
Skull Valley Goshutes http//www.skullvalleygoshu
tes.org/
Fernald document www.fernald.gov.pfd
DU article http//www.tv.cbc.ca/national/pgminfo/
du/index.html
US Nuclear Map http//www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/three
/maps/index.html
World Nuclear Association http//www.world-nuclea
r.org
Source Killing Our Own by Harvey Wasserman and
Norman Soloman. http//www.ratical.org/radiation/K
illingOurOwn/