Chapter Ten

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Chapter Ten

• The Play Years
• Psychosocial Development

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Empathy and Antipathy

• Empathy understanding another persons emotions
• leads often to prosocial actions
• helping another without obvious benefit to
  oneself
• Antipathy disliking or hating someone else
• may lead to antisocial behavior
• injuring another person or destroying something
  that belongs to another
• Sharing
• freely done or directed by others
• Aggression
• Instrumental used to obtain an object such as a
  toy
• Reactive involves retaliation for an act
  whether or not it was intentional
• Relation designed to inflect psychic (mental)
  pain
• bullying aggression unprovoked attack

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Learning Social Skills Through Play

• Peers others of the same age and status
• peers make the best playmates
• play is most adaptive and productive activity of
  children
• Rough-and-tumble play
• helps child develop muscle strength and control
• caregivers should look for a play face when
  attempting to figure out if child is playing or
  fighting
• Sociodramatic play
• helps child explore and rehearse social roles
  he/she has seen
• helps child test ability to convince others
• helps child regulate emotions through imagination
• helps child examine personal concerns in
  nonthreatening way

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Baumrinds Three Styles of Parenting

• Baumrinds 4 important dimensions that influence
  parenting
• expression of warmth or nurturance
• strategies for discipline
• quality of communication
• expectations for maturity
• 3 Styles
• Authoritarian high standards and expectations
  with low nurturance
• children likely to become conscientious,
  obedient, and quietbut not happy
• Permissive little control, but nurturing
• children likely to lack self-control and are not
  happy
• Authoritative limits and guidance provided but
  willing to compromise
• children are more likely to be successful,
  articulate, intelligent, and happy

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Baumrinds Three Styles of Parenting

• Recent studies have found link between parenting
  styles and child behavior less direct than
  Baumrinds original research indicated
• impact of childs temperament
• influence of community and cultural differences
  on childs perception of parenting
• in poor or minority families, authoritarian
  parenting tends to be used to produce
  high-achieving, emotionally regulated children
  strict and warm can be successful

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Techniques of Discipline

• In deciding which technique to apply, parents
  should ask How does technique relate to child?
• childs temperament, age, and perceptions crucial
  considerations
• Culture is a strong influence
• expectations
• offenses
• punishments
• In United States
• time-out is used
• child stops all activity and sits in corner or
  stays inside for a few minutes

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What About Spanking?

• Reasons for parenting variations
• culture, religion, ethnicity, national origin
• parents own upbringing
• Developmentalists fear children who are
  physically punished will learn to be more
  aggressive
• domestic violence of any kind can increase
  aggression between peers and within families

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The Challenge of Video

• Dilemma for parents about letting children watch
  television and play video games
• parents find video a good babysitter
• parents believe video can sometimes be
  educational tool
• Experts suggest parents turn off the TV to avoid
  exposing children to video violence

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The Evidence on Content

• Exposure to violence greatgood guys and bad guys
  show violent behavior
• All good guys male no non-white heroes
• Women/females portrayed as victims or adoring
  friendsnot as leaders
• Content of video games even worse than than that
  of television
• more violent, sexist, racist
• Children, especially males, who watched
  educational television became teens who earned
  higher grades, read more
• Content of video games crucial reason behind
  great concern of developmental researchers
• research shows that violent TV and video games
  push children to be more violent than they
  normally would be
• computer games probably worse, as children are
  doing the virtual killing
• Developmentalists look at the following to
  evaluate poor content
• perpetuation of sexist, ageist, and racist
  stereotypes
• depiction of violent solutions for every problem
  and no expression of empathy
• encouragement of quick, reactive, emotions rather
  than thoughtful regulation of emotions

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Boy or Girl So What?

• Male or femaleimportant feature of self-concept
• Sex differences biological differences between
  males and females
• far less apparent than in adulthood
• Gender differences culturally imposed
  differences in roles and behaviors
• more significant to children than to adults

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Development of Gender Awareness

• By age 2, awareness of gender-related
  preferences and play patterns
• By age 3, cognitive awareness of own gender
• By age 4, awareness of gender appropriate toys
  or roles
• By age 6, well-formed ideas and prejudices about
  own sex and the other sex

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Theories of Gender Differences

• Psychoanalytic
• Freuds view sexual attraction to opposite-sex
  parent
• phallic stage according to Freud, 3rd stage of
  psychosexual development occurring in early
  childhood when penis becomes the focus of
  psychological concern and physiological pleasure
• Oedipus complex according to Freud, occurring
  in the phallic stage, in which boys have sexual
  desire for their mothers and hostility towards
  their fathers guilt and fear resolved by gender
  appropriate behavior
• -Identification
• Superego personality part that is self-critical
  and judgmental
• Electra complex girls understanding they cant
  replace mother, so want to be like her (identify
  with her). Similar to the Oedipus complex

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Behaviorism

• Gender-appropriate behavior learned through
  observation and imitation
• Children learn gender-appropriate behavior by
  modeling it after that of people they want to
  imitate
• Especially for young boys, conformity to gender
  expectations rewarded, punished, modeled

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Cognitive Theory

• Gender typing occurs after concept of gender has
  developed
• Once gender consistently conceived, a child
  organizes the world based on that understanding
• Gender schema organizes the world in terms of
  male and female
• internal motivation to conform to gender-based
  cultural standards and stereotypes guides
  attention and behavior

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Sociocultural Theory

• Gender values strenuously kept
• Many traditional cultures emphasize gender
  distinctions
• To break through restrictiveness of cultural
  expectations, some embrace the idea of androgyny
  a balance of male and female psychological
  characteristics
• true androgyny possible if supported by whole
  culture

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Epigenetic Theory

• Stresses the biological and environmental aspects
  of behaviors
• environment shapes, enhances, or halts genetic
  impulses
• Differences between male and female brains
• environmental influences
• example girls are genetically inclined to talk
  earlier than boys perhaps in prehistoric time,
  women stayed behind to care for children while
  men went out and hunt for food.

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Conclusion Gender and Destiny

• 5 theories lead to 2 conclusions and 1 question
• Gender differences are not simply cultural or
  learnedbiological foundation much greater than
  originally suspected
• Biology is not destinyenvironment and
  experiences shape children
• Epigenetic and psychoanalytic theoriesemphasize
  on the power of biology.
• Behavorism theory, cognitive theory and
  sociocultural theory all present evidence for
  the influence of family and culture.