LIVELIHOODS

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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENTFROM THE GLOBAL TO THE
LOCAL

• John J. Green, Ph.D.
• Institute for Community-Based Research
• Division of Social Sciences and Center for
  Community and Economic Development at
• Delta State University
• Delta in Global Context, Fall 2005

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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FROM THE GLOBAL TO THE
LOCAL
--The Livelihoods Framework-- Of the many
theories for studying and understanding
development, the livelihoods framework is
particularly helpful. Livelihoods studies have
been a part of the development discourse in the
international arena, but use of the framework in
the U.S. context has been limited. Livelihood
refers to the ways in which individuals,
households and their communities interact in
their attempts to achieve a particular standard
of living. Livelihood strategies involve
continuous negotiation and redefinition of
social, economic and political relations within
communities and broader institutions in an effort
to mesh material and experiential
needs. (Bebbington, 1999 DeHaan, 2000 Ellis,
1998)
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FROM THE GLOBAL TO THE
LOCAL
Of great interest to this line of research are
the ways in which access to diverse resources,
often conceived of as assets or forms of capital,
provide the capabilities for people to handle
changes while also attempting to improve their
situations. (Bebbington, 1999 DeHaan, 2000
Ellis, 1998)
Produced
Human
Cultural
Natural
Social
(adapted from Bebbington, 1999 and DeHaan, 2000)
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FROM THE GLOBAL TO THE
LOCAL

• A combination of theory and research informing
  the livelihoods framework identifies a variety of
  important issues. . .
• Short-term shocks and moderate/long-term
  stresses.
• Access and the inclusion/exclusion divide.
• Interaction around market trade, redistribution
  and reciprocity, leading to. . .
• Dynamic relationship between market, state and
  civil society.
• Critical role of diversity in survival
  strategies.
• (Ellis, 1998 Bebbington, 1999 DeHaan, 2000
  Massey 2004 Meert 2000)

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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FROM THE GLOBAL TO THE
LOCAL
For this class, we will use the livelihoods
framework to explore broad issues from the global
to the local levels.
Sustainable Livelihoods
Of course, there are many other issues of
importance to understanding livelihoods, such as
land, environment and cultural preservation, just
to name a few. However, I contend that health,
education and employment are of great
importance. These issues also fit well with our
exploration of the United Nations Millennium
Development Goals.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FROM THE GLOBAL TO THE
LOCAL
Part 1, Focus on Health
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
The connection between livelihoods, development
and health is informed by Bloom and Canning
(2003) and Cosby (2005).
From a sociological perspective, it is important
to look at two aspects of health and health
care --Health status in regard to illness and
wellness. --Social organization of health care.
It may be helpful to start at the beginning. . .
child and maternal health.
UN Millennium Development Goals
include --Improve maternal health (reduce
maternal mortality rate) --Reduce child mortality
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
According to the UN-MDG (2005), maternal health
has improved over the last several decades.
However, pregnancy and child birth end in death
for over a half million women annually (avg. from
2000-2003).
One of the key interventions for preventing
maternal mortality is for deliveries to be
attended by a skilled health care provider.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Note Statistics are based on country-level data.
There is some variance in completion rates from
one year to another. No estimates were used to
compensate for missing data.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
As reported by the UN-MDG (2005), progress has
been made in reducing child mortality. For
example, in 1960 one in five children from
developing countries died before age five. By
1990 this had been reduced to one in ten.
Still, an average of eleven million children die
before their fifth birthday.
Factors important for improving health among
young children include Improvements in public
health services (e.g. safe water,
sanitation). Immunization. Education,
especially among young girls and
mothers. Raising income. Increasing access to
health care services.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Note Statistics are based on country-level data.
There is some variance in completion rates from
one year to another. No estimates were used to
compensate for missing data.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Note Statistics are based on country-level data.
There is some variance in completion rates from
one year to another. No estimates were used to
compensate for missing data.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Another UN Millennium Development Goal --Combat
HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
HIV/AIDS. The soaring rates of HIV/AIDS have
erased decades of steady health improvements.
An estimated 25 million people are HIV-positive
in Africa, and AIDS threatens to take off in
India, China, and the former Soviet
republics. The death toll in Africa is
staggering, and it has contributed to a reversal
in life expectancy now 47 years instead of an
estimated 62 years without AIDS. (Center for
Global Development, 2004)
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Note Statistics are based on country-level data.
There is some variance in completion rates from
one year to another. No estimates were used to
compensate for missing data.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Now lets investigate some of the health trends
in the U.S., the South and Mississippi.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Advances in health have been made in the U.S. and
the industrialized world more generally,
especially reduced infectious disease rates,
improved diagnostic capabilities and increased
life expectancy. Still, there are some challenges
Although better than in less developed
countries, the U.S. has the highest infant
mortality rates of the industrialized
countries. The states with the highest infant
mortality rates are clustered primarily in the
south. Heart disease, cancer and strokes are
major causes of death in the U.S. There is an
increasing prevalence of so-called lifestyle
health problems, including obesity,
cardiovascular disease and type II
diabetes. Women, those over the age of 65, the
poor, and minorities are more likely than their
counterparts to report being sick to the point of
restricted activities.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Perceptions of Health
A common measure for assessing perceptions of
health is self-rated health
Poor, Fair, Good, Very Good, Excellent
(5-point) Or Poor, Fair, Good, Excellent (4-point)
Self-rated health is widely used in the sociology
of health literature. It is regarded as generally
valid in predicting mortality (Idler and
Benyamini, 1997 Benyamini and Idler,
1999). Recent analysis by Idler and her
colleagues (2004) suggest that it is particularly
representative for those who are physically in
poor health.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Summary Results from the Health Literature
Characteristics such as race/ethnicity, gender
and age are related to health status. Their
influence, however, is somewhat mitigated by
socio-economic factors.
Education is important for health status
(Schnittker, 2004). Higher levels of education
allow for greater awareness of health issues and
beneficial behavior. It is also critical in terms
of providing a means for more prestigious
occupations and higher incomes. People with
higher levels of education are more likely to
earn higher income, and have insurance.
Income, on the other hand, influences the
likelihood of a person being able to afford a
healthy lifestyle. Furthermore, income influences
the level of care one might be able to afford.
According to Schnittker (2004), the relationship
between income and health varies based on
education level.
Education and income both constitute
socio-economic resources and are linked to health
through a wealth of existing empirical
literature.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Summary Results from the Health Literature
(contd)
A prominent micro-level theory for the
relationship between education, income and health
maintains that people living in low-status
situations are likely to face more severe
(although not necessarily more frequent) stress
as a part of their everyday lives and they tend
to be more vulnerable to these stressors over the
course of time (Grzywacz et. al., 2004).
The fundamental causes theory maintains that
people of higher socio-economic status tend to
have better health than those of a lower status
because they have greater access to resources for
health and are better able to take advantage of
new opportunities to improve health (Link and
Phelan, 1995).
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Summary Results from the Health Literature
(contd)
Access to care facilities and supplies is
critical for health maintenance and improvement.
Importance access issues include. . . Location
of services. Quality of services and
supplies. Financial cost of services and
supplies.
The geographic location of health services is an
issue where rural areas are at a particular
disadvantage.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Summary Results from the Health Literature
(contd)
In market-based health systems, insurance
coverage influences health in that it serves as a
means of access.
Some employers provide health insurance as part
of their benefits package to employees. In other
situations, such as for family businesses, people
may purchase private health insurance.
There are also means-tested government insurance
programs for the poor and elderly, most notable
being Medicaid and Medicare.
The south in general and the state of Mississippi
in particular have lower levels of insurance
coverage compared to the nation as a whole
(DeNavas-Walt, Proctor and Lee, 2005).
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
Summary Results from the Health Literature
(contd)
Literature on the role of insurance in health is
mixed in terms of source of coverage. Studies
suggest that privately insured adults
(non-elderly) are of better health than the
uninsured. However, the same pattern is not
found for those who rely on government program
insurance. There are two arguments offered to
explain this divergence (Quesnel-Vallée,
2004). One position is that people face
differences in access and quality of care based
on whether they have private or government
insurance. Alternatively, it is argued that the
difference results from selection bias those who
qualify for a government program are, by the way
the programs are structured, more likely to be of
poorer health because of their socio-economic
position and associated risk factors.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON HEALTH
--Linking Health and Economic Development-- Do
not believe that if malaria is not under control
that you will attract a tourist sector or a
business investment sector. Do not believe that
if diarrheal diseases, acute respiratory
infections, vaccine preventative infections and
nutritional deficiencies of the young are not
being attended to, that your children will be in
school and will stay in school to achieve their
potential. They cannot achieve their potential if
repeated bouts of illness keep them out of
school, or if they suffer from physiological and
psychological drain of chronic under nutrition.
Investing in health is not just something that is
nice to do. It must be done not only for the
sake of health (though health itself is worth the
effort!), but because it is essential for all
aspects of economic development. Sachs, J.D.
2003. "Achieving the Millennium Development
Goals Health in the Developing World." Speech at
the Second Global Consultation of the Commission
on Macroeconomics and Health, Geneva.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FROM THE GLOBAL TO THE
LOCAL
Sustainable Livelihoods
Part 2, Focus on Education
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON EDUCATION
As social scientists, there are some important
questions about education that we should
ask What is education? What are the goals of
education? How does education relate to
employment opportunities and livelihood? There
are many valuable reasons to pursue education,
including critical thinking, personal and
community empowerment, advancement of humanity
through enlightenment, etc. At the same time, a
very practical pursuit is achieving an education
that allows for employment and livelihood
security. This is increasingly recognized as
important to communities, regions and countries
plagued by underemployment and persistent poverty.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON EDUCATION
Education is commonly considered fundamental for
development processes. This is the case across
all development theories. We often hear that
education is the only way to improve and other
such statements. Education is part of the UN
Millennium Development Goals, including the
effort to ensure that boys and girls are afforded
the opportunity to complete primary school.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON EDUCATION
Note Statistics are based on country-level data.
There is some variance in completion rates from
one year to another. No estimates were used to
compensate for missing data.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON EDUCATION
Note Statistics are based on country-level data.
There is some variance in completion rates from
one year to another. No estimates were used to
compensate for missing data.
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON EDUCATION
Trends in the United States
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON EDUCATION
Trends in the United States and Mississippi
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON EDUCATION
In considering education and employment, it is
important to differentiate between. .
. Knowledge Technical skills Experience Credentia
ls
How do these relate to peoples employment
opportunities across the lifespan? What are the
educational expectations in the changing
economy? Examples include Reichs symbolic
analysts and Floridas creative class What
happens to those people with a good education but
who cannot find an appropriate job? Brain
Drain? What happens to those people who are
left behind?
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON EDUCATION
Perceptions of Education
Common measure for assessing perceptions of
education
In general, how would you grade the education
system in your community? F Failing, D Poor,
C Average, B Good, A Excellent
Graduates from public high schools in my
community are sufficiently prepared to enter a
college or university in Mississippi. Strongly
Disagree, Disagree, Undecided/Neutral, Agree,
Strongly Agree
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON EDUCATION
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON EDUCATION
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LIVELIHOODS DEVELOPMENT FOCUS ON EDUCATION
An Interesting Point from the Perceptions of
Education Literature
Those sociodemographic groups reaping the fewest
benefits from the educational system (racial
minorities, low education, low income) in their
community are the same groups that are more
likely to rate the education system higher than
their white, highly education and higher income
counterparts (Kimport, 2005 Rice, 2005).