Dawning of Modern Science

1
Dawning of Modern Science

• The shift from magic, superstition, and
  Aristotelian/Church dogma to observations and a
  rational approach to explaining those
  observations of nature

2
Aristotelian Science

• Born in 384 BC in Macedonia, Greece
• Father, Nicomachus, was a physician
• Father of Formal Logic
• Every Greek is a person
• Every Person is mortal
• Therefore, every Greek is mortal
• Deduction of truth from known axioms

3
Aristotelian Science

• Aristotelian View Prevails for Two Millennia and
  Becomes Deeply Embedded in the Church
• Based on Deduction Reasoning from Detailed
  Facts to General Principle
• Attempts to Explain Nature from a Consistent,
  Logical Framework of Principles
• Does not seek discovery of new phenomena nor make
  predictions

4
Aristotelian Science

• Look to the Heavens for Perfection
• Divides Cosmos into Extra-Lunar and Sub-Lunar
• Sun and planets have circular motion because the
  circle is a geometric perfection
• The Earth is at the center of the cosmos

5
Aristotelian Science

• Sun, planets and stars composed of quintessence
• Moon is mainly quintessence but contaminated by
  its proximity to the earth
• Basic Elements Fire, Air, Water and Earth
• Motion Circular, Natural, Violent, Rest
• The path of an arrow

6
Claudius Ptolemy

• Born in Upper Egypt ca. 85 AD and dies in
  Alexandria in 165 AD
• Made his first recorded astronomical observa-tion
  on 26 March 127 and his last on 2 February 141
• Confirms the year is 1/300 day less than 365 ¼
  days (Error 1/128)

7
Ptolemaic Cosmololgy
8
Ptolemaic Cosmology
9
Newtons Criticism

• Ptolemy developed certain astronomical theories
  and discovered that they were not consistent with
  observation. Instead of abandoning the theories,
  he deliberately fabricated observations from
  theories so that he could claim that the
  observations prove the validity of his theories.
  In every scientific or scholarly setting known,
  this practice is called fraud, and it is a crime
  against science and scholarship.

10
Roger Bacon (1214 1292)

• Franciscan Monk
• Mathematics is the door and the key to the
  sciences
• Around 1278 Bacon was put in prison in the
  convent in Ancona in Italy by his fellow
  Franciscans, the charge being of suspected
  novelties in his teaching
• Father of Modern Scientific Inquiry

11
William of Occam (1285 -1349)

• "Pluralitas non est ponenda sine neccesitate"
• "plurality should not be posited without
  necessity.
• Keep it simple, stupid.

12
Views from Different Centuries

• We are dwarfs mounted on the shoulders of giants,
  so that although we perceive many more things
  than they, it is not because our vision is more
  piercing or stature higher, but because we are
  carried and elevated higher thanks to their
  gigantic size.
• Bernard of Chartres (1080 1167)

13
Views from Different Centuries

• Never will we find truth if we content ourselves
  with what is known Those things that have been
  written before us are not laws but guides. The
  truth is open to all, for it is not yet totally
  possessed.
• Gilbert de Tournai (1256)

14
Views from Different Centuries

• every day a new instrument and a new method is
  invented. Theodoric of Bologna (1267)
• Not all the arts have been found we shall never
  see an end of finding them. Every day one could
  find a new art Sermon by Father Giordano in
  Florence

15
Views from Different Centuries

• We stand poised on the brink of a new era, one
  endowed with technology and teeming with
  opportunities.
• Federal Reserve Bank of Dallas, 1996, Annual
  Report

16
Mechanical Clocks

• 1271 Mention in England of the effort to build
  an accurate mechanical clock
• 1307 1308 Tax imposed for the repair of the
  bell tower clock in Orvieto
• 1309 Galvano Fiamma writes of the mechanical
  clock in Milan
• 1308 1318 Cambray Clock in France
• 1322 1325 Norwich Cathedral Clock in England
• 1386 Salisbury Cathedral clock (Today)
• 1344 Jacopa de Dondis first clock is mention
  as being installed in Padua
• 1348 Giovanni de Dondi, son of Jacopa, build
  the Astrarium

17
Giovanni de Dondi (1318 1389)
18
Dondis Astrarium
19
14th Century View

• Angels turned the wheels that drove the
  clock-like mechanism of the universe with the
  earth at the center

20
Mikolaj Kopernik (1473 1543)

• Born in Torun, Poland in 1473 and dies in
  Frombork, Poland in 1543
• Father was a merchant who traded in copper and
  was a magistrate

21

• Leaves Krakow to study at the University of
  Bologna to take a degree in Canon Law Studied
  law, mathematics and astronomy
• 1497 Appointed as a Canon at Frauenburg
  Cathedral with no obligation to return
• 1503 Granted a doctorate in Canon Law at the
  University of Ferrara
• 1512 Establishes an observatory in one of the
  towers of the Castle Ermland at Frauenburg

22
A Little Commentary (1514)

• Seven Axioms
• The Earths Center is not the center of the
  universe
• The center of the universe is near the center of
  the sun
• The distance of the earth to the Sun is
  imperceptible compared to the distance to the
  stars
• The rotation of the Earth accounts for the daily
  rotation of the stars
• The apparent annual cycle of movements of the sun
  is caused by the rotation of the earth about the
  sun
• The apparent retrograde motion of the planets is
  caused by the motion of the earth from which one
  observes

23
Copernicus (1520 1543)

• 1520 General administrative duties for
  Allenstein and Mehlsack
• 1521 Appointed Commissar of Ermland
• 1515 1543 Works on De revolutionabus orbium
  coelestium

24
de Revolutionibus orbium coelestium 29 August
1541

• Rheticus, a protestant student, reports
• my teacher always had before his eyes
  observations of all ages together with his own
  then when some conclusion must be drawn he
  proceeds from the earliest observations to his
  own, seeking mutual relationships which
  harmonizes them all ..
• Printing oversee by a Lutheran

25
Copernican Cosmology

• Preface, added by a protestant reformer, stated
  that this was only a geometrical hypothesis and
  that cosmological interpretations should be left
  to philosophers
• Dedicated to Pope Paul III
• Planetary positions predictions are marginally
  better at best
• Reception was mixed with the heliocentric view
  rejected by all
• A century and a half would pass before
  Copernicus view is widely accepted

26
Copernican System

• If the earth rotates, why does a stone thrown in
  the air come straight down?
• People would be thrown off of a rotating earth.
• How could a bird find its nest if the earth
  rotated.

27
Tycho Brahe (1546 1601)

• Born in Denmark in 1546 and dies in Prague in
  1601
• Father of nobility and mother from leading
  churchmen and politicians
• Raised by his uncle, one of the 20 advisors to
  the King, in Tostrup Castle

28
Tycho Brahe (1546 1601)

• 1552 Begins studies in law at the University of
  Copenhagen
• 1560 Observed an eclipse on August 21 and
  purchased an astronomy book shortly thereafter
• 1562 Travels to study at the University in
  Leipzig (no astronomy courses)
• August 1563 makes observations of the
  conjunction of Saturn and Jupiter and finds that
  neither Ptolemaic nor Copernican tables were
  accurate

29
Tycho Brahe (1546 1601)

• 1567 Returns home from Rostock with a silver
  nose
• 1567-1570 Travels to various European
  universities
• 1570 Returns home and constructs an
  astronomical observatory at Herrevad Abbey

30
Tycho Brahe (1546 1601)

• 1572 Kirsten Jorgensdatter, a commoner, becomes
  his common-in-law wife
• 1572 Heavily involved in alchemical
  experimentation
• 11 November 1572 Observes a supernova in
  Cassiopeia

31
Tycho Brahe (1546 1601)

• 1575 King provides funds to build the ultimate
  observatory in order to keep Tycho Brahe in
  Denmark
• Uranisborg on the island of Hven Produces the
  most accurate astronomical measurements to date
• Observes a comet in 1577 and demonstrates that it
  is further away than the moon in contrast to
  Aristotles cherished views

32
Tycho Brahe (1546 1601)

• Devices an geocentric cosmology around which the
  sun and moon revolve and all the planets other
  than the earth revolve around the sun
• Since his children cannot inherit Uranisborg the
  institution is made a quasi-university of the
  state so that the management could pass to the
  children later overturned

33
Tycho Brahe (1546 1601)

• 1599 Johannes Kepler joins Brahe as his
  assistant
• 1601 Kepler succeeds Brahe as Imperial
  Mathematician

34
Johannes Kepler (1571 1630)

• Born in Wutterberg, Germany and dies in
  Regansburg, Germany
• Son of a mercenary soldier and the daughter of an
  innkeeper
• Profoundly religious and believes that the Deity
  made the universe as a mathematical model (Plato,
  Pythagoras)

35
Johannes Kepler (1571 1630)

• Learned Ptolemaic cosmology at the University of
  Tubigen
• Finds himself in conflict with the Lutheran views
  and decides not to be ordained as a minister
• 1595 Describes a mystical cosmology explaining
  why there are five planets which he believes
  proves the Copernican cosmology sends book to
  Tycho Brahe
• 1610 Coins the word satellite or attendant to
  describe the moon

36
Johannes Kepler (1571 1630)

• Succeeds Brahe as the Imperial Mathematician
  uses Brahes observations
• In order to resolve a problem with the orbit of
  Mars he concludes
• THE PLANETS ORBIT IN ELLIPSES ABOUT THE SUN
• A LINE FROM THE SUN TO THE PLANET SWEEPS OUT
  EQUAL AREAS IN EQUAL AMOUNTS OF TIME

37
Johannes Kepler (1571 1630)

• 1604 Observes a supernova
• 1619 Publishes The Harmony of the World
• Keplers Third Law The square of the period of
  a planet is proportional to the cube of the mean
  distance from the sun.

38
Johannes Kepler (1571 1630) The Mystic

• Accepted astrology as did most astronomers of his
  day and before
• Sun causes seasons
• Moon causes tides
• Did not believe in the Constellations but in the
  relative position of planets
• His irrationality is found most often in his
  desire to use mathematics to fit Christian
  beliefs of his day

39
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Born in Pisa Eldest Son
• Father was a Musician
• Raised in Florence after age 10
• Father wished him to become a physician
• He wished to study Mathematics
• Began teaching mathematics in Florence and then
  Sienna (1585-86)

40
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Appointed to Chair of Mathematics at Pisa (1589)
• Wrote De Motu (not published)
• One can test theories by experimentation
• Study falling bodies with inclined plane
• Moves to University of Padua (Venice) for 3X
  salary (1592)

41
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Argues against Aristotle
• Writes to Kepler and states he is a Copernican
• Lives with Maria Gamba but never marries her (two
  daughters)
• Works out theory of falling bodies using an
  inclined plane (1602-04)

42
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Determines that a projectile will follow a
  parabolic path (Not published for 35 years)
• May 1609 Receives correspondence with knowledge
  of a Dutch telescope
• August 1609 Has constructed a telescope of 8X
• Publishes Starry Messenger (May 1610)

43
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Starry Messenger
• Reported Milky Way composed of stars
• Reported mountains on moon
• Reported four objects orbiting Jupiter which he
  named the Medicean Stars
• June 1610 Becomes Chief Mathematician of Pisa
  and Mathematician and Philosopher to the Grand
  Duke of Tuscany (Cosimo)
• Discovers Rings of Saturn and phases of Venus
• Becomes further convinced of the Copernican
  viewpoint

44
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Observed sunspots and publishes these observation
  in 1612-1613
• He puts forward the idea that comets are close to
  earth and are caused by optical refraction
  (wrong) and started a long-term argument with the
  Jesuits

45
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Letter to Castelli (1613)
• Bible should be interpreted in terms of the
  discoveries of science
• Opponents in Florence send letter to the
  Inquisition in Rome
• Cardinal Bellarmine sees Copernicus model as a
  mathematical construct allowing better
  determination the planetary positions

46
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Letter to the Grand Duchess (1616)
• Argues against Aristotle
• Sun at Center of Universe
• Refutes Ptolemy and Aristotle
• Endorses Copernican View
• Argues for non-literal interpretation of bible
• Pope Paul orders Bellarmine to determine the
  correctness of the Copernican Theory

47
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Sacred Congregation of the Index condemned the
  views of Copernicus
• Bellarmine notifies Galileo personally that he is
  forbidden to hold Copernican views
• Maffeo Barberinia, an admirer of Galileo, becomes
  Pope Urban VIII (1623-1644)

48
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Galileo dedicates Il Saggitore to the Pope
• Maintains that only through mathematics can the
  universe be understood
• Galileo has six audiences with the Pope
• Dialogue Concerning Two Chief Systems of the
  World Ptolemaic and Copernican (1632)

49
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Dialogue on Two Chief World Systems
• Inquisition banned the book
• Galileo order to appear before the Inquisition in
  Rome
• Illness prevented his traveling to Rome until
  1633
• Galileo found guilty and held in house arrest
  until his death in 1642

50
Galileo Galilei (1564-1642)

• Died condemned of heresy, under house arrest
• Body was hidden and only placed in a fine tomb in
  1737 Galileos finger
• October 13, 1992 Pope Paul II admits errors
  were made by theologians with respect to the case
  against Galileo and declared the case closed but
  does not admit the Church was wrong in convicting
  Galileo on heresy

51
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727)

• Born at Woolsthrope in Lincolnshire (Christmas
  Day 1642, January 4 1643)
• Father was a farmer who died 3 months before
  Issac was born

52
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727)

• Mother marries Rev. Barnabas when Issac is 2
  years old
• Lives with mothers parents
• At age 19 when listing his sins
• Threatening my mother and father to burn them and
  the house over them
• School reports him idle and inattentive

53
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727)

• Enters Trinity College Cambridge (June 1661) as a
  sizar
• Sought initially a law degree
• Studies Descartes, Boyle, Kepler and Galileo
• Quaestiones Quaedam Philosophicae (1664) Plato
  is my friend, Artistotle is my friend, but my
  best friend is truth.
• Granted a bachelors degree in April 1665

54
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727)

• Summer 1665 University closes because of plague
  and Newton returns to Lincolnshire
• Mathematics Methods of Fluxions (Calculus)
• Optics Theory and Practice
• Physics
• Astronomy

55
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727)

• De Methodis Serierum dt fluxionum (1671) Not
  Published until 1736
• 1667 University is opened and Newton is elected
  to a minor fellowship
• 1668 Receives MS and elected to a major
  fellowship
• 1669 Named Lucasian Chair (27)

56
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727) and Light

• Posed and demonstrated that while light was
  composed of all colors of the rainbow
• Designed Reflecting Telescope
• Elected Member of Royal Society (29 years old -
  1672)
• Published Theory of Light (Corpuscular)
• Criticized by Hooke and Huygens

57
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727) and Light

• Hooke claims Newton stole some his ideas about
  light (1675)
• Newton turns inward
• Newton suffers a nervous breakdown (1678)
• Hooke dies in 1703 and Newton published Optiks in
  1704
• Newtons Rings
• Investigation of Colors of Thin Sheet
• Diffraction of Light

58
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727) Physics and
Celestial Mechanics

• 1666 Had devised the basic three laws of motion
• a body in motion will remain in a constant
  state of motion unless acted upon by a force
• a F/m
• if a body is acted upon by a force, that body
  acts back with an equal force

59
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727) Physics and
Celestial Mechanics

• 1669 Hooke writes to Newton
• that the attraction always is in a duplicate
  proportions to the distance of the center to the
  reciprocal
• 1669 Newton on his own found a proof that the
  Keplers law of areas was a consequence of the
  fact that the force on a planet is a ellipse
  under the action of a central force proportional
  the inverse square of the distance to the sun

60
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727) Physics and
Celestial Mechanics

• 1684 Halley, tired of Hookes boasting,
  persuaded Newton to publish the Principia (1687),
  parts of which dates back to the de Motu
• applies the three laws and the law of gravity
  to orbiting bodies, projectiles, pendulums and
  free fall near the earth
• Question of the Apple

61
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727) Physics and
Celestial Mechanics

• Theory of Gravity
• Any two bodies attract one another with a force
  proportional to the product of their masses and
  inversely proportional to the square of the
  distance between them (center)

62
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727)

• Newton becomes a demigod
• Defended the university against King James
• Elected to Parliament
• Newton was an avid alchemist and also attempted
  to analyze the Gospel of St. John mathematical to
  determine a date for the end of the world (2060)

63
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727)

• 1693 Suffers another breakdown
• Poisoning from alchemic experiments
• Frustration with his researches in alchemy and
  analyzing the bible
• Ending of a personal friendship with Fatio De
  Duillier
• 1696 Warden of the Mint
• 1699 Master of the Mint (Serrations)
• 1703 Elected President - Royal Society

64
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727)

• As president of the Royal Society it was
  difficult to publish if you had ever disagreed
  with Newton
• Newton was of the most fearful, cautious and
  suspicious temper I have ever known (Whiston)
• Appointed an official committee to resolve who
  invented calculus Leibniz or Newton

65
Sir Issac Newton (1643 1727)

• Knighted in 1703 by Queen Anne
• Died March 31, 1727