Colonialism and Immigration

1
Colonialism and Immigration

• EWS 404
• Week 2

2
US Global Expansion

• 1808 U.S. purchased Louisiana from France.
• 1819 U.S. took over Florida.
• 1845 Texas became part of the country.
• 1848 U.S.- Mexican War.
• 1889 Spanish-American War -- Hawaii. Philippine,
  Cuba, Guam.

3
Imperialism

• Gglobalization of capitalism through military
  means
• To make natural resources, market, and labor
  supply available through out the world.

4
Immigration

• Movements of labor, capital and technology
  across national boundaries.
• Though expanding rapidly, US was still an
  agriculture country and in the process of capital
  accumulation cheap labor essential in the West
  coast.
• American labor contractors and travel business
  were aggressively participated in recruiting and
  transporting Asian labor missionary helped built
  up a rosy picture of America in order to attract
  Asian laborers to come.

5
Immigration

• Labor shortage in the American West was the
  powerful economic force to pull labor immigrants
  from Asia.
• 1 million Asians v. 35 million Europeans during
  1850-1930.

6
Orientalism

• In spite of the diversity within Asian people,
  they used to be referred as "Oriental."
• From an Euro-centric perspective that views
  everything east of Suez Canal as Oriental. The
  term includes also Arabian countries.
• Asia has been mistakenly referred as Far East in
  this country. But when you fly from California to
  Asia, you fly to west.

7
Orientalism

• But in many history books, Japan or China are
  referred as the Far East.
• Geographically speaking, these countries are east
  to Europe not America.
• Yet previous historiography was dominated by
  Euro-centric perspective.
• Difference between "Asian America" and
  "Oriental" is crucial.
• "Orientalism" tends to blur culture differences
  within Asia.

8
Asian Migration and Western Expansion

• For centuries, colonists, capitalists, soldiers,
  and missionaries from Europe roamed the earth in
  search of land, profits, power, and cultural
  domination.
• British colonialism in China and India indirectly
  started the emigrant stream from these countries
  to North America.
• American capitalists and missionaries directly
  promoted immigration in Japan, Korea, and the
  Philippines to Hawaii and California.
• Political control, economical exploitation,
  cultural invasion, trade, imperialist wars,
  unequal treaties, privileges of Westerners were
  results of such expansion.
• Trade follows the Flag God, Gold, Glory

9
Colonialism in Asia
10
China

• Daniels During the Ming Dynasty in the 15th
  century, vast Chinese fleets probed the Indian
  Ocean.
• One 1406 expedition included 62 vessels and a
  complement of 28,000 men. P. 11. Manchus, Qing
  1644-19111 million 10 of Chinese population.
• Even in 1840s, most people materially better off
  than most Europeans, imports include silver,
  sweet potatoes, coren, peanuts, tobacco, Canton
  System in 1727, early 1600s one half silver mined
  in Spanish Americas shipped to China.
• Social instability, population pressure, peasant
  rebellion, ethnic conflicts.

11
China- Trade follows the Flag

• Opium War
• From 1685-1769, Britain imported silk,
  porcelains, herb medicine and tea.
• By 1800, tea became a national beverage and the
  average London worker spent 5 of his total
  household budget on tea.
• Trade imbalance led British merchants export and
  sell opium to the Chinese, beginning to spread in
  1720s.
• When opium was banned by the Chinese law, Britain
  started the Opium War of 1839-40 to 1842.

12
China

• The Treaty of Nanjing
• 1842
• Treaty ports opened Canton, Xiamen, Fuzhou,
  Shanghai and Ningpo
• Though emigration abroad was illegal in China
  mmissionary activities spread far and wide.
• Importation custom duties sharply reduced and
  later on, taken over by the Westerners.

13
China

• Indemnities
• -21 million silver dollars paid out of Nanjing
  Treaty.
• Treaty ports
• -Open to foreigners for business in many
  places in China.
• Territory Ceded
• -Hong Kong and Marco were ceded became a
  major center of Chinese emigration within a
  decade.

14
China

• Foreign Settlement (Qingdao)
• - In many cities, Western countries would
  lease an area where the Chinese government could
  not have administration power.
• Extraterritorial privileges
• - Foreigners immune to Chinese laws,
  especially in the foreign concessions.

15
Coolie trade

• Slave trade was banned in British Empire in 1833.
  
• Indians went to Malaya, Singapore, Burma, Kenya,
  Uganda, Zanziba, Rhodesia, and South Africa,
  Trnidad nd jamaica in the Daribean, Aauritius,
  and Fiji
• Chinese to Cuba and Peru.

16
Japan

• Tokugawa Dynasty
• 1600-1868, the emperor had no real power the
  most powerful man was the military ruler "shogun"
  who technically was the emperors military chief
  of staff, though virtually a ruler.
• Shogun
• Technically the emperors military chief of
  staff, though virtually a ruler.
• Trade commerce important though merchants in low
  social position, 1560 banned trade with China,
  Portuguese as middle men based in Macao, imported
  silk, porcelain and exported silver.

17
Japan

• Commodore Matthew Perry
• 1853, 4 US steamed powered ships sailed into
  Tokyo Bay
• Japanese called them "the black ships with evil
  appearance" delivered a letter from American
  president asking for navigation rights, trade and
  diplomatic relationship, and promised to return
  next year
• Exchanged gifts swords, fans, silk robes,
  porcelain cups vs guns, telescope, a clock, and a
  telegraph

18
Japan

• Treaty of Peace and Amity in 1854 provided
  privileges similar to those acquired by European
  nations in China.
• In 1858 more treaties signed, 5 ports, Osaka and
  Edo were open for trade, the man who signed the
  treaty was assassinated in 1860.
• 1867, the old emperor died, in 1869, the shogun
  handed over power to the new boy emporer Meiji,
  and 1869 moved from Kyoto to Tokyo (East
  Capital).

19
Japan

• Meiji Restoration of 1868
• In 1868, warriors overthrew "shogun," the 15 year
  old emperor became the authority.
• Meiji Emperor made the local feudal lords give up
  their power and dismissed their private armies.
• Japan set up a new and national army, a
  centralized government.
• Farming commercialized.
• Industrialization speeded up.

20
Japan

• Meiji Restoration of 1868
• Education modernized.
• Military forces strengthened.
• And Japan was rising rapidly as an imperialist
  country.
• By 1890, the country had more than 200
  steam-powered factories and railways, steamships,
  and telegraph lines, and a powerful army and
  navy.

21
Japan

• Education
• Compulsory not only for boys but also for girls.
• Foreign studies and English language were taught.
  Japanese leaders went to Europe and America to
  learn about Western ideas and technology.
• Europeans and Americans were brought in to train
  Japanese engineers, scientists, manufacturers,
  soldiers, and sailors.

22
Japan

• Land Policy
• Land tax in 1873 based on 3 of the fixed
  assessment of the value of the land regardless of
  the harvest or the price of crop in that yearand
  paid in cash and in time.
• Land tax made up 90 of all tax revenues and
  70 of all fiscal revenues in 1873.
• By the end of the century, it was still more
  than half of the government's total income.
• By 1880-90, some 40 of farmers became
  tenants 300,000 lost their land(Takaki).

23
Japan

• Politics Military, police personnel, teachers,
  students, and others were not allowed to attend
  political meetings and join political
  organizations.
• Conscription laws
• 1837 required all males of 17-40 for military
  service except for the sole sons and grand sons,
  the adopted sons, heads of the family, and the
  rich who pay a substitute fee of 270 yen.
• In 1889, every male had to serve until 1908
  those who wish to defer the service emigrate
  abroad as student-laborers.

24
Japan

• Immigration Ban lifted in 1885.
• About 149 Japanese arrived in Hawaii in
  1868-9 and treated so poorly that Japan banned
  immigration.
• In 1882-3, Hawaii sent representatives to
  Japan to lift the ban 1885 that Japanese lifted
  the ban.

25
Japan

• Robert Walker Irvin
• A US consul general in Hawaii, a special agent of
  the Board of Immigration for the Kingdom of
  Hawaii in charge of recruiting and transportation
  of the laborers
• Also acting as foreign adviser to the Japanese
  government
• Two powerful friends in Japan -- Inoue Kaoru, the
  foreign minister, and Masuda Takashi, a
  businessman
• Recruiting in Yamaguchi, (southwest) hometown of
  Kaoru and Takashi.

26
Japan- Irvin Convention 3-year contract

• Sugar planters deposited 25 of all wages with
  the Japanese consulate in Honolulu to guarantee
  that the laborers could return
• covered transportation cost, lodging, fuel,
  medical care and interpretation service though he
  often passed those cost on to the workers.
• Initially men paid 9 women 6 later men 15,
  women 9 in the fields 10 hours a day or 12
  hours in the mills for 26 days a month.But
  monthly wages were twice the earnings of skilled
  artisans in Japan and six times what farmers
  made.
• When Japanese government announced 600 immigrant
  slots for first shipment to Hawaii in 1885, it
  received 28,000 applications.
• By 1894 about 30,000 government contracted
  laborers arrived in Hawaii.(T.45) 25 women 46
  returned.

27
Korea - Contact with China and Japan

• The Yi Dynasty viewed themselves as vassals of
  the Qing dynasty emperors.
• The "sadae" policy -- serving the great by
  regularly sending tribute missions to China
  China was obliged to assist when requested by
  Korea.
• In 1592, a Japanese feudal lord Toyotomi
  Hideyoshi led a troop of 150,000 to invade Korea
  -- a two-year war between Japan and China.
• Korea refused any outside contact in the next two
  and half centuries and was dubbed as "Hermit
  Kingdom" by the West.

28
Korea

• Catholicism came to Korea vie China.
• A Chinese Catholic missionary entered in 1795
  but was executed by the government.
• French priests entered in 1830s and some of them
  were also executed. About 2,000 Catholics were
  persecuted in 1839 to 1866.
• Contact with the West
• 1860s, Western powers first approached the
  country with navy ships. In 1866, Korean shore
  batteries drove off seven French warships, in
  1871, five American ships, and in 1875, one
  Japanese ship.

29
Korea

• Kanghwa Treaty 1876
• -forced on
  Korea by Japan
• Treaty ports 1876-1905 14 -- Pusan in the south,
  Inchon on the west coast and Wonsan on the east
  and set up privileged foreign settlements.
• Extraterritorial privilege and monopoly control
  of the import and export trade.
• China as a suzerainty to Korea, Japan required
  Korea o declare itself independent and
  established a permanent diplomatic mission in
  Korea.
• Li Hongzhang as a broker, America signed a
  similar treaty with Korea in 1882 with Britain
  and Germany in 1883, Russia and Italy in 1884,
  and France in 1886.

30
Korea Court corruption

• Under the Min Queen, corrupted and contracted
  numerous debts to foreign banks.
• Korean peddlers faced with tough competition from
  the Chinese and Japanese.
• Foreign merchants purchased crops such as rice or
  beans and sold them in Japan for greater profit
  and imported cotton goods, kerosene and matches
  which Korean peasants would buy with the cash
  they received through selling rice and bean.
• As a result, self-sufficient economy became
  eroded.

31
Korea

• Tonghak Rebellion(Eastern Learning)
• 1860-90, a religious movement which expressed
  discontent of many poor farmers and eventually
  led to a massive peasant uprising asked China to
  help, then Sino-Japanese War in 1894.
• Japanese soldiers broke into the royal palace,
  took King Kojong hostage, drove away Chinese
  soldiers, forced Korea to open all southern
  Korean ports to them and gave them many other
  rights.
• Tonghak leaders led hundreds of thousands of
  farmers in yet another uprising, this time,
  against the Japanese.
• But Japanese soldiers suppressed the uprising and
  killed many rebels.

32
Korea

• Economic Concessions 1896-1900
• Japan -- Seoul-Inchon railway, Seoul-Pusan
  railway, gold mine in N. Chungchong
• Russia -- mining rights in Kyongwon, Chongsong,
  N. Hamgyong timber in Yalu River area by Russia
• France -- Seoul-Uiju railway
• Germany -- gold mine in Kangwon
• Britain -- Gold mine in S. Pyongan

33
Korea

• U.S. -- U.S. built first Korea's first electric
  facilities in the royal palace, its first gas
  plant, street cars, and the modern mines in
  Korea gold mines' operation in Unsan, N. Pyongan
  yielded 9 million tons of ore with a net profit
  of 15 million dollars.(Cheng,290)
• Banks
• Japanese Dai Ichi Bank proliferated throughout
  Korea since 1878.
• By 1902, it issued 19 million yen in Korea and
  became the dominant bank there.

34
Korea

• Horace Allen
• A Presbyterian and doctor who entered Korea in
  1884 from China in a court conflict, Allen saved
  the life of a relative of Korean Queen Min and
  was given a royal title and visited the palace
  without prior summons.
• Foreign secretary of Korean legation in
  Washington DC bet 1888-9
• Secretary of the American legation in Seoul in
  1890-6 American minister in Korea bet 1897-1905.
  
• Functioned as a middleman between the U.S. and
  Korea governments helped his friends get
  lucrative concessions the Unsan gold mines, the
  richest mines in Korea.

35
Korea

• By 1904, Pyongyang had 15,000 Christians,
  one-fourth of its population set up Christian
  schools and hospitals as well.
• Methodists and Presbyterian competed for
  influence while the former opened schools the
  later opened hospitals.

36
Immigration to Hawaii

• In 1902, Allen stopped over Hawaii, met with the
  Hawaiian Sugar Planters' Association and
  discussed possibilities of recruiting Korean
  labor then persuaded King Kojoung to set up an
  immigration bureau.
• His friend David Deshler persuaded the McKinley
  government to appoint Allen minister to Korea in
  1896.
• Allen helped Deshler open a bank in which the
  HSPA deposited 25,000 dollars and formed the
  East-West Development Company bank lent money to
  aspiring emigrants for their passage.
• Allen described Hawaii in golden terms suggested
  that it would build up Korea's reputation through
  immigration because the Chinese were excluded as
  a way to win friendship and support from the
  United States.
• Meanwhile, poverty, famine and drought also
  helped pushed some of the Koreans to leave.
•  

37
Korea

• Yumin won (or Suming won)
• In November 1902, under the royal family rather
  than foreign ministry and 2 won passport fee
  went to the royal family.
• Regulations sound health, good standing in their
• communities, statements of destination and
  intended
• occupation, passports not issued as contract
  laborers but for the purpose of education,
  observation and to engage in commerce, industry
  and agriculture.
• After Japan annexed Korea in 1910, it also
  dissolved the Suminwon.
• Director Min Yong-hwan committed suicide
  leaving an impassioned plea for independence
  addressed to the people of Korea.

38
Korea- Recruiting

• In Deshler's immigration advertisements
• Mild weather, both unmarried and family
  immigrants were welcome.
• Employment opportunity in agriculture, 16
  dollars a month for a 60 hour work week (average
  wage in Korea was 1.5-3 a month).
• Free education, protection of American law
  helped pay passport fees and lend loans to each
  immigrant in addition to transportation cost (to
  be paid back in 10 months.)
• Recruiting offices set up in many treaty-port
  cities and the Chongdong district of Seoul, near
  to American legation. In 1901, a severe drought
  occurred in northwestern part of the country.
  Allen wrote in 1902, that the severe famine in
  the winter makes Hawaii more attractive to the
  Koreans.

39
Korea

• George Heber Jones
• A Methodist Reverend, persuaded 50 persons from
  his congregation to leave first 101 emigrants,
  sailed from Inchon on December 22, 1902, five
  weeks after the establishment of the Suminwon.
• HSPA loaned 100 dollars to each immigrant
  including transportation cost, 50 dollars pocket
  money but later collected back and coached to
  pass immigration interview.

40
Filipinos - Americanization

• 1521 Portuguese explorer Fernando Magellan
  landed
• 1559 King Philip ordered Spanish occupation
• 1565 discovered route to sail northward into the
  Japan current, easterly along the forth parallel
  and sourthward with the Alaska current, skirting
  the California coast to Acapulco.
• Santiago and San Juan began the Manila galleon
  trade with 712 pieces of silk and 22,300
  porcelains.
• Around 1600, over 1 million taels (about 37.5
  grams) of silver per year were exported from
  Manila to China.

41
Filipinos - Americanization

• 16 licensed junks in 1589 to 50 in 1631 by
  Chinese government traveled from Ningpo, Canton,
  Xiamen, Quanzhou, Zhangzhou to Manila.
• 1571 Miguel Lopez de Legazpi established
  permanent settlement in Manila with harbor and
  easy access to China trade.
• The trade lasted until 1815 -- first major
  Western colony in Asia and the longest lasting
  one until 1946.
• Manila galleon
• annual shipments of Mexican and Peruvian silver
  from Acapulco to Manila, then to Fujian and
  Guangdong, China, returned with silk, porcelain,
  and other luxury goods crops like core, potato
  were introduced into China.

42
Filipinos

• Colonial period
• 3 centuries (1560s-1898) named after King Philip
  II of Spain.
• 1782-1882 tobacco export was a major revenue
  source.
• 1820s on indigo, rice, sugar and cotton.
• 1870 dependent on import for rice and clothes.

43
Spanish-American War-1898

• As a market and source of raw materials for US
  industry, and to secure the Philippines as a
  military strong-point for America to penetrate
  the market of China.
• Senator Alfred BeveridgeThey have moved nearer
  to China by securing permanent bases on her
  borders, The Philippines give us a base at the
  door of all the East."
• In the 1880s, Africa was swallowed up by Britain,
  Germany, and France. In the 1890s, these same
  powers, joined by Russia and Japan, began to
  carve up China.
• US Navy destroyed Spanish fleet in Manila Bay --
  defeated the once-mighty Spain at small cost
  marked U.S. as powerful military force in the
  Pacific the war was over the future of the Cuban
  revolution, Spanish Empire gave away its
  dominance over Cuba, Puerto Rico, Guam, Hawaii
  and the Philippine Islands for 20 million dollars.

44
Filipinos in the Navy

• Began to serve in 1901-3 -- 500 joined the Navy
  and 6,000 in WWI -- 4,000 in 1920-30s
• A 1947 Philippine-United States defense agreement
  allowed an unspecified number of Filipinos to
  serve in the US Navy in 1983, the number was
  averaged 1,500 a year, and there were 19,733
  Filipino enlisted men and 379 officers in the
  Navy.
•  
• Prior to and during WWI, the Navy allowed
  Filipinos to serve in a range of occupational
  ratings. However, after the War, the new ruling
  only allowed them to the ratings of stewards,
  including the college graduates.
•  
• 1973, reduced from 2,000 to 500 per year, about
  200,000 applied -- the first year of new Navy
  policy granting occupational rating.

45
Filipinos

• Resistance
• The middle class, educated Filipinos campaigned
  for reforms and Filipino participation in the
  colonial government.
• The Spanish harshly repressed the movement and
  executed the leader Jose Rizal in 1896.
• From 1896-98, the leader was Emilio
  Aguinaldo(1869-1964) U.S. NAvy arranged to bring
  back Aguinaldo to the Philippines who led the
  Philippine troops to drive the Spanish
  colonialists out of the rural area in the island
  of Luzon, and declared independence in June 1898.

46
Philippine-American War

• In August, U.S. army arranged the Spanish to
  surrender to them, took over Manila and did not
  allow the Philippines to enter the capital city.
• Feb. 1899-1901, fighting between US and
  Philippine troops started. After firing
  500-pound shells into the Filipino trenches at
  close range, killing thousands of poorly equipped
  Filipino soldiers, the Filipino troops retreated
  and switched to guerrilla warfare.
• In November 1899, it became US colony. Aguinaldo
  was captured in 1910.

47
Philippine-American War

• An army of 76,000-126,000 was shipped to the
  islands a series of bloody, cruel guerrilla
  warfare that killed civilians, rounding up local
  people into concentration camps where the spread
  of disease like malaria, yellow fever killed many
  people.
• In September 1901, an American general ordered
  his troops to king any one over ten. In another
  campaign, Major General Franklin Bell's troops
  killed over 100,000 people estimated by American
  General Bell in an interview that the death toll
  of disease and starvation range from 200,000 to
  600,000 or a million. 4,243 American soldiers
  were also killed.

48
Rudyard Kipling

• the White Mans Burden written for Americans in
  1899 to govern your new caught sullen peoples,
  half devil and half child.
• The White Mans Burden 
• Take up the White Mans burden,
• Send forth the best yet breed
• Go bind your sons to exile
• To serve your captives need,
• To wait in heavy harness
• On fluttered folk and wild,
• You new-caught sullen peoples,
• Half devil and half child.

49
Benevolent despotism

• In 1901, the Philippine Commission, a civilian
  government, was set up. William Howard Taft(27th
  American President 1909-13) became the first
  leader of the Commission "little brown brothers"
  and began a policy of appeasement.
• In 1902, a law to open the lower house of the
  Philippine congress to open to Philippine
  representation lower and middle level of
  government positions were offered to elite
  Philippines in 1907, the first election held
  based on a strict property qualification for
  voting.
• I909, Payne-Aldrich law to open tariff-free US
  markets to Philippine land owners for raw
  products of sugar, hemp, tobacco, coconut oil
  until 1929.
• From 1920-30, sugar import from the Philippines
  to America rose to 450.

50
Philippine -Education

• A nation-wide program of free and universal
  public education conducted in English Fred
  Atkinson, a US citizen, was the first General
  Superintendent of Education.
• Hundreds of idealistic American teachers taught
  the English language and Western civilization to
  the Filipino people
• English as official language Washington and
  Lincoln as heroes in school textbooks.
• US as a generous friend to free from the Spanish
  rule and spread democracy and literacy.

51
Philippine

• Competition for labor
• Initially, recruiting agents were even attacked
  by stones and clubs 1915, the Philippine
  legislature passed a law imposing a tax of 6,000
  pesos on any agent recruiting laborers for
  outside employment and an additional tax of 500
  pesos for each province which allowed such
  recruiting HSPA paid the tax in order to proceed
  with recruiting activities also agreed to
  provide for free return after a 3-year contract.
•  
• Legal status -nationals rather than aliens
• Colonialism It was the Europeans who sought out
  the East, because Europe was poor, background
  the smell of Europeans compared with the daily
  bathing tradition of the Japanese and
  tooth-brushing of the Indians.

52
Asian Indians

• About 8,000 East Indians arrived in America after
  1900 came on trans-Pacific ships, usually via
  Hong Kong to California.
• East India Company
• Beginning in 1600, the East India Company sent
  their ships in 1608 to set up trading ports.
• India was then ruled by the Islamic Mughal
  dynasty, beginning to decline.
• East India Company was a powerful business
  organization with private army.
• In the middle of the 18th century, they
  successfully excluded the French influence in
  India and forced the Mughal emperor to turn over
  the revenue administration.
• By the mid 18th century, after defeating various
  local feudal lords, the East India Company became
  the nations master.

53
Asian Indians

• Government control
• The British Parliament passed the India Act
  of 1784 which allowed the government to supervise
  the company's political operations, 1785 Calcutta
  made capital city, the 813 Charter Act finally
  proclaimed the "undoubted sovereignty of the
  Crown of the United Kingdom over British India."
• 1835, English and Western learning became the
  main objects in education, English law,

54
Asian Indians

• Colonial rule
• transformed the area into a cash crop producing
  region in a 1793 Settlement Act -- pay land
  revenue on time and in cash small land owners
  had to register their property under larger
  landowners who could now transfer, purchase and
  sell land according to British land policies.
• Many small farmers to be migrant workers or serve
  in the British army or police force. Global
  expansion of British Empire need Silk soldiers.
• English was the official language in high
  education. Christianity was introduced.

55
Asian Indians

• Military Service
• Sikhs, Rajputs, and Gurkhas (Nepal) were defined
  as martial races
• 1845-46 British defeated Sikhs, took over Pujab
  and Kashmir, Sikh population only constituted 1
  of the total Indian population, they formed
  one-fifth of the British Army in India
• During WWI, over 65 Indian troops came from
  Punjab. also sent to China, Southeast Asia,
  East Africa, and other places. ICS Indian Civil
  Service, 900-1,200 British staff, stations as
  Himalayan foothills, fishing fleet, civil
  lines British Club, British raj moved to Delhi
  in 1911.

56
Asian Indians

• From soldiers to immigrants
• Stationed in Hong Kong, Canton, Rangoon, Burma,
  Singapore, Shanghai, Tianjin, Manila, and Canada.
• Among the 8th Allied forces taken to Beijing
  during the Boxer Movement of Indian immigrants
  in Southern California two out of three Punjabis
  gave Hong Kong as their place of emigration1907,
  arrived in the United States.
• In 1910, a gurdwara (Sikh temple) was
  established in Hong Kong as it had a large Sikh
  community made up of solders, policemen,
  watchmen, and businessmen.
• An Indian immigrant said in 1924"I was born in
  the Punjab district of India and served on the
  police force in Hong Kong, China, for some years.
  While I was in China several Hindus returned and
  reported on the ease with which they could make
  money in America and so I decided to go.

57
Asian Indians

• Transportation
• Built roads, railways, and canalsBritish
  interest in Punjab stemmed from a conscious
  recognition of the agricultural wealth of the
  area and a fear of the expansionist motives of
  Imperial Russia.
• To secure Punjab and Afghanistan, it improved
  transportation facilities in these places for
  troop movements and built by the end of the 19th
  century over 25,000 miles of rail network the
  largest of all Asia.
• The fourth largest textile industry, the worlds
  largest irrigation system, delivering industrial
  crops like jute, cotton, indigo, or tea Suez
  Canal opened in 1869.
• British colonists reached India in two weeks from
  England roads.
• Railway construction also linked Punjab heartland
  to all major cities and ports. About 2,000 miles
  of railways was laid in the Punjab province
  itself.

58
Asian Indians

• Route
• The railways linked Amritsar, the religious
  center of the Sikhs, with new Delhi, India's
  capital after 1912.
• From there take train to Calcuttak_at_l'k te, a
  port city in Bengalbbeg''g l, along the
  northeastern coast of India then board steamers
  for Hong Kong in 12 days, and a further secure
  passage to many parts of the world, Manila,
  Singapore, Shanghai, Yokohama, Vancouver and San
  Francisco without another 16 to 18 days journal.
  Because of the sufficient road and railway
  network, Punjabi immigrants could get to
  seaports, quickly, cheaply and safely.
• It cost about 50 to take ships from Hong Kong to
  Vancouver or San Francisco. Sikhs traveled in
  groups of at least of five to ten in the initial
  period. Unlike other Asians, Punjabi were not
  from the coastal region.

59
Asian Indians

• Route
• Canada - Initial destination British Columbia in
  Canada. Census recorded that 43 in 1905 387 in
  1906 and then 2,693 in 1907 and 2632 in 1908 and
  by 1908, there were 5,179 Indians there located
  primarily in Vancouver.
• Some recruited by labor-recruiting companies
  which mainly served the interest of railroad
  construction business and steamship companies.
• Many came through chain-migration network among
  themselves.

60
Asian Indians - Global emigration

• Emigration abroad was rare as Hinduism, the
  predominant religion in India, had certain taboos
  against sea travel.
• In Indian agricultural system, the laborers were
  bound to the land. By the end of 18th century,
  however, because of increased overseas contact
  under British rule, Indian laborers could be
  found in most of the ports of southeast Asia.
• With the abolition of slavery in the British
  Empire in 1834, and the refusal of freed slaves
  to work on the sugar plantations of Trinidad,
  Jamaica, British Guiana, and Mauritius, the sugar
  plantation owners became keenly interested in
  recruiting Indian laborers.
• During the 19th century, 700,000 Indians were
  taken to the West Indies, British Guiana, and
  Mauritius as indentured laborers.
• Before 1870, Calcutta, a city in Bengal, was the
  center of British power emigrants drawn from
  surrounding area of Calcutta.

61
Immigration and American myth

• Individualism immigrants are mainly those people
  who seek political and religious freedom or
  economically motivated.
• Exceptionalism America viewed as land of plenty
  social conflicts not as intense as in other
  places. Most immigrants succeed as middle class
  skilled workers, professionals or business
  people. Racial and social class gap would be
  narrowed down.
• Assimilation. Immigrants assimilate into
  American society by getting rid of their ethnic
  heritage.

62
Asian Immigration to America theories
63
Push" and Pull" theory

• "Push" factors, for example, consist of
  population pressure, economical crisis, natural
  disasters, social and political instability of
  the sending place.
• "Pull" factors include social and political
  stability, job opportunities, economical boom,
  better living conditions, and education
  opportunities.
• The assumptions of this theory is that the most
  disadvantaged members of poorer countries are the
  most likely to participate in labor migration
  and migrant flow arise out of the sheer existence
  of economic inequalities.

64
1. Push" and Pull" theory

• On the surface, these assumptions appear
  self-evident laborers migrate from Mexico to the
  United States or from Turkey to Germany.
• But this theory fails to answer, at the
  nation-state level, why migrants did not come
  from equally poor countries or areas and among
  the individual level, why some people left while
  others stayed behind.

65
2. International Relationship

• Linking the sending and receiving countries
  together attributing to colonialism in sending
  countries views modern history in a global
  context. Capital expansion throughout the world
  was the major force responsible for modern
  immigration.
• That means modern immigration is an international
  phenomenon a result of a series overlapping
  factors across the national boundary.
• World capitalism demanded cheap raw materials and
  labor supply through out the world. From an
  international migration perspective, though Asian
  immigrants to America was pushed by various
  internal conditions and pulled by various
  international forces, capitalist expansion in
  Asia was the link between the "pull and push"
  factors.

66
2. International Relationship

• For example, Asians not only left their home
  country by themselves but were also actively
  recruited and promoted by American labor contract
  agents and transportation companies.
• Takaki Aaron Palmer recommended recruiting
  Chinese labor to work in Hawaii Converted to
  Christianity, many Koreans been encouraged to
  emigrate by American missionaries Filipinos as
  US nationals.

67
3. Chain migration

• However, international labor migration is
  basically an outcome of individual decisions
  governed by the law of supply and demand. It
  fails to explain why some individuals decided to
  migrate and others do not.
• Immigration is not only a result of economical
  forces but also a socially embedded movements.
  Social networks such as kinship, family or other
  social relationship are at the core of the
  movement and sustain migration over time.
• Immigrants are not uprooted, isolated
  individuals moving from one place to another but
  socially related people who migrate in groups for
  social and economical reasons.
• Study of early Asian American immigration will
  help us understand America as a country of
  immigrants and the similarities between early
  Asian American experience and the contemporary
  Asian immigrants experience.

68
Summary

• When, why, and how did each Asian immigrant group
  come to America?
• What are some of the push and pull factors? What
  are some of the differences and similarities
  between them?
• How are the historical experience related to the
  contemporary Asian American experience?
• It explains the geographical location of
  contemporary dominant AA communities,
  demographical characteristics of AA communities,
  and economical and cultural life influenced by
  the history.
•