Properties of Xbar

1
Properties of X-bar

• Complements, Adjuncts, Specifiers.

2
X-bar theory

• Specifier Rule XP ?(YP) X
• Adjunct Rule X ?(ZP) X or X ? X (ZP)
• Complement Rule X ? X (WP)

3
Predictions?

• Propose three different kinds of modifiers
• specifiers
• complements
• adjuncts
• Is this valid? Are there really three different
  kinds? Do they have different properties

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Formal Definitions
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N, N, NP are called the projections of N
NP
D N
the
AP N
N PP
big
N PP
from Blackwell
N PP
with the red cover
book
of poems
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!quick way to distinguish complements and
adjuncts in NPs (doesnt work for other
categories). Complements of N are marked with the
preposition of. All other prepositions mark
adjuncts. (This is not fool-proof!)
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Complements always closest to head

• The book of poems by Burns
• head complement adjunct
• The book by Burns of Poems
• head adjunct complement

since complements are sister to head
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Only one complement, multiple adjuncts

• X ?(ZP) X or X ? X (ZP) Iterative
• X ? X (WP) not iterative

the book of poems with the red cover from
Blackwell in the bath
the book of essays of poems from Blackwell
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Adjuncts can be reordered
The book of poems from Blackwell with the red
cover on the bus. The book of poems with the red
cover from Blackwell on the bus. The book of
poems with the red cover on the bus from
Blackwell. ?The book of poems on the bus with the
red cover from Blackwell. ?The book of poems on
the bus from Blackwell with the red cover. ?The
book of poems from Blackwell on the bus with the
red cover. The book from Blackwell of poems with
the red cover on the bus The book from Blackwell
with the red cover of poems on the bus The book
from Blackwell with the red cover on the bus of
poems (etc.)
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Conjunction

• The conjunction rule Xn ? Xn Conj Xn
• The red and blue house The red and cat
• Complements can be conjoined with complements
• The book of poems and of essays
• Adjuncts can be conjoined with adjuncts
• The book with the red cover and with a blue spine
• Complements cannot be conjoined with adjuncts
• The book of poems and with the red cover

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One replacement

• One Replacement replace N with one.

therefore an adjunct can follow one but
complements cannot!
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One replacement

• The book from Blackwell not the None from
  Oxford
• The book of poems not the one of essays
• (There is a dialectal difference about the
  acceptability of this last sentence)

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Telling complements from adjuncts
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Interesting ambiguity

• The English teacher
• Teacher from England (adjunct reading)
• Teacher of the English language (complement)

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Interesting ambiguity

• The Spanish English teacher
• (can only have language teacher reading)
• The English teacher of Spanish
• (can only have nationality reading)
• The Math and English teacher
• (can only have the language reading)
• The Canadian and English teacher
• (can only have the nationality reading)
• The English one
• (can only have the nationality reading)

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An easy mistake to make!

• When you have only one PP modifier or AP
  modifier, be very careful to see if it is a
  complement or adjunct. If it is an adjunct it
  must be a sister to the X level!!!!!

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The complement/adjunct distinction in VPs

• John VP often eats apples with a fork
• adjunct head complement adjunct
• In VPs, the direct object is always the
  complement. Other things require thought.
• For example the verbs give and put take two
  complements a NP and PP.
• I gave the apple to John (both are complements)
• I put the book on the table

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I loved the policeman intensely with all my heart
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Adverbial NPs

• He read faithfully every day.
• What does the tree look look like?
• Is faithfully an adjunct?
• He read faithfully his syntax book.
• What can we conclude about how every day and
  his syntax book?
• Complements come closer to the head than adjuncts

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• Only 1 occurrence of each complement
• I loved the policeman the fireman
• Reordering
• I loved the policeman with all my heart intensely
• I loved the policeman intensely with all my heart
• I loved intensely the policeman with all my
  heart
• I loved intensely with all my heart the
  policeman
• Conjunction
• I loved the policeman and the fireman
• I loved the policeman intensely and with all my
  heart
• I loved the policemand and intensely

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• Do so replacement
• Susan loved the policemen intensely with all her
  heart but/and
• Mary did so with her brain!
• Mary did so mildly with her brain
• Mary did so the fireman

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APs and PPs???

• Evidence is much weaker.
• very afraid of tigers
• adjunct head complement
• very in love with himself
• adjunct head complement ????
• a man in love with all his heart
• ? a man in love with all his heart with himself
• We will assume the distinction exists here

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Specifiers

• The only element we have seen in specifiers so
  far is the determiner. In the next chapter, well
  argue that even these arent real specifiers.
• Instead, well argue the specifier is where
  subjects are generated. More on this later.
• For now, understand the definition (sister to X,
  daughter of XP), and put determiners there.

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Summary

• Specifier sister to X, daughter of XP
• Adjunct sister to X, daughter of X
• Complement sister to X, daughter of X
• X-bar theory predicts differences in behavior
  between complements and adjuncts
• only one complement, multiple adjuncts
• complement must be closest to head
• adjuncts can be reordered
• conjunction
• One/did so complement

25
Summary

• Complement/Adjunct distinction hold of pre-head
  material too.
• The C/A distinction can capture ambiguity
• There is strong evidence for the C/A distinction
  in NPs and VPs
• The evidence for APs and PPs is weaker
• We are leaving specifiers aside for the moment as
  something to be dealt with later.