Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior HC190

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Introduction to Wildland Fire Behavior (HC-190)

• Horry County Fire/Rescue

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COURSE OBJECTIVES

• Identify and discuss the three sides of the fire
  triangle.
• Identify the environmental factors of wildland
  fire behavior that affect the start and spread of
  wildland fire.
• Recognize situations that indicate problem or
  extreme wildland fire behavior.

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Fire Triangle
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Fuel Moisture
The amount of water in a fuel expressed as a
percentage of the oven-dry weight of that fuel.
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Categories of Fuel

• Light Fuels
• Leaves
• Grass
• Shrubs

• Heavy Fuels
• Limbs
• Logs
• Stumps

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Fuel Loading
The quantity of fuels in an area.
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Horizontal ContinuityandVertical Arrangement

• Horizontal Continuity
• Uniform
• Patchy

• Vertical Arrangement
• Ground
• Surface
• Aerial

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Uniform Fuels
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Patchy Fuels
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Vertical Arrangement of Fuels
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Group 2 -- Weather

• Temperature
• Wind
• Increases supply of oxygen.
• Drives convective heat into adjacent fuels.
• Influences direction of spread and spotting.
• Carries away moist air replacing it with drier
  air.
• Dries fuels.
• Raises fuel moisture if the air contains
  moisture.
• Relative Humidity
• As RH increases, fuel moisture increases.
• Precipitation
• Increases fuel moisture

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Steep Slopes Cause Rapid Fire Spread
Convection and Radiant Heat
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UNIT 2OBJECTIVES

• List the indicators of an approaching cold front
  and describe what wind changes to expect.
• List three common foehn wind conditions and the
  areas in which they occur.
• Identify a thunderstorm and describe how and when
  it is dangerous.

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UNIT 2OBJECTIVES (contd)

• Describe the daily cycle of slope and valley
  winds.
• Describe the effect relative humidity has on
  wildland fire behavior.
• Identify the wildland fire environment indicators
  that can produce problem and extreme fire
  behavior.

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General or Gradient Winds
Large scale winds caused by high and low pressure
systems, but generally influenced and modified in
the lower atmosphere by terrain.
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Cold Front
A cold front is the boundary line between a
cooler air mass which is replacing a warmer air
mass.
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Cold Front Winds
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Indicators of a Cold Front Passage

• Line of cumulus clouds approaching from the west
  or northwest.
• Large clouds of dust can precede the arrival of a
  cold front.
• Shift in winds from the southeast, south, to the
  southwest, and increase in velocity.
• Winds will be strongest, erratic, and gusty as
  the front reaches you.
• Winds will continue to shift as the front passes,
  generally resulting in strong, gusty, cool winds
  out of the west and northwest.

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Cold Fronts are Potentially Dangerous

• Wind direction will abruptly change.
• Strong southerly winds ahead of front will drive
  the fire head to the north or northeast.
• Winds shifting to west or northwest after front
  passes will drive fire head to the east or
  southeast.
• Rapid drop in relative humidity within 24 hours
  of front passage.

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Fire Before Cold Front Passage
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Fire After Cold Front Passage
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Thunderstorm
A storm produced by a cumulonimbus cloud and
always accompanied by lightning, thunder, and
strong gusty wind.
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Visual Indicators of Thunderstorm

• Tall building cumulus cloud.
• Cauliflower appearance of cloud.
• Dark flat base.
• Virga or rain falling from bottom of cloud.
• Ice crystal top usually in anvil shape with fuzzy
  appearance.

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Thunderstorm
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Why a Thunderstorm is Dangerous

• Produces strong, gusty surface winds affecting
  direction of fire spread.
• Downdraft winds will be erratic but always away
  from the thunderstorm.
• Thunderstorms also produce lightning which can be
  dangerous.

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Sea Breeze Land Breeze
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Temperature/Relative Humidity Chart
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Visual Indicators of Unstable Air
Clouds grow vertically and smoke rises to great
heights
Cumulus type clouds
Gusty winds
Good visibility
Dust devils and firewhirls
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Visual Indicators of Stable Air
Cloud in layers, no vertical motion
Stratus type clouds
Smoke column drifts apart after limited rise
Poor visibility in lower levels due to
accumulation of haze
Fog layers
Steady winds
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Dust Devils
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Firewhirls
Generated by intense fires. Can pick up large
burning embers and toss them far across the
fireline causing spot fires.
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Indicators of Problem and Extreme Fire Behavior

• Unusually dry fuels.
• Large amount of light fuel (shrubs, grass,
  needles).
• Fuels exposed to direct sunlight.
• Fuels dried by prolonged drought.
• Ladder fuels that allow a surface fire to move
  into the crowns of shrubs or trees.
• Crown foliage dried by surface fire.
• Concentration of snags.

Fuel Indicators
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Indicators of Problem and Extreme Fire Behavior
Weather Indicators

• Strong Wind.
• Sudden changes in wind direction and velocity due
  to weather fronts.
• High, fast-moving clouds may indicate unusual
  surface winds.
• Unexpected calm may indicate wind shift.
• Thunderstorms above or close to the fire.
• Unusually high temperatures and low relative
  humidity.
• Dust devils and whirlwinds developing.
• Bent smoke column.

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Indicators of Problem and Extreme Fire Behavior
Fire Behavior Indicators

• Keep an eye on the smoke column. Indicates
  direction of fire spread, location of spot fires,
  and changes in fire intensity.
• Many simultaneous fires starting or smoldering
  fires beginning to pick up in intensity.
• Fire begins to torch small groups of trees or
  shrubs.
• Frequent spot fires occurring.
• Firewhirls beginning to develop inside the main
  fire.
• Crown fires.

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Firefighter TrainingHC-130

• Horry County Fire/Rescue

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Firefighter Training, S-130Course Objectives

• Construct fireline to required standards using
  various methods for construction.
• Stengthen, reinforce, and use holding actions on
  a fireline.
• Extinguish the fire with or without the use of
  water.

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Firefighter Training, S-130Course Objectives
(continued)

• Assess and report fire situation data (written or
  oral) by radio and/or messenger.
• Complete assigned tasks in a safe and efficient
  manner.
• Given an assignment in a wildfire environment,
  describe factors in that environment which could
  impact safety.

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Unit 1 - Safety Orientation
OBJECTIVES

• Define Safety.
• Identify potential hazards and explain the proper
  safety procedures to follow.
• Explain what the LCES (Lookouts, Communications,
  Escape Routes, and Safety Zones) system is and
  why it is important.

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Key Safety Methods

• LCES (Unit 1)
• Watch Out Situations (Unit 11)
• Fire Orders (Unit 11)

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Fire Suppression Hazards

• Environmental
• Lightning
• Snags
• Fire entrapment
• Heat stress
• Hypothermia
• Darkness
• Carbon monoxide
• Dust

• Biological
• Snakes
• Insects
• Animals
• Plants
• Microorganisms
• Viral Infections

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Fire Suppression Hazards

• Equipment
• Cuts (saws, tools, etc)
• Burns (pumps, saws)
• Noise
• Foreign objects thrown
• Hand tools
• Dozers, plows, etc.

• Vehicle
• Operating around personnel
• Mechanical failure (brakes)
• Shifting cargo
• Unskilled/inattentive operator

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Fire Suppression Hazards

• Aircraft
• Retardant drops
• Bucket drops
• Sling loads
• Rotor wash
• Crew transport

• Fire Environment
• Fire
• Burns
• Smoke
• Winds
• Darkness
• Snags

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Fire Suppression Hazards

• Human Factors
• Attitude
• Physical condition
• Experience level
• Training level
• Fatigue
• Critical stress
• HAZMAT

• Base/Camp
• Sleeping areas
• Sanitation
• Food

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Trees and Snags

• Three categories/conditions of trees
• Living
• Dying (still alive, but with little or not chance
  of recovery)
• Dead (snags)

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Safety Procedures

• Any hazard (or potential hazard) should be
  reported to your immediate supervisor
• Hazardous areas should be flagged
• Two options for working in an unsafe area
• Do not enter the area until it is safe
• Make the area safe to work in, provided you
  receive supervisor approval

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LCES
A System for Operational Safety
L
Lookout(s)
C
Communication(s)
E
Escape Routes
S
Safety Zone(s)
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LCES

• When should a lookout be posted?
• Back off if the situation is too complex
• Re-assess tactics
• Position lookout where both hazard and
  firefighters can be seen
• Lookout must be trained to observe wildland fire
  environment and recognize anticipate fire
  behavior changes

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LCES

• Under what conditions would you need
  communications?
• Method used to alert firefighters of approaching
  hazards must be prompt and clear
• Communication devices
• If you have doubts about your ability to
  communicate, back off. Take the time to get it
  right!

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LCES

• Path the firefighter takes from a location
  exposed to danger, to an area free from danger,
  to an area free from danger
• Effectiveness of escape routes changes
  continuously constantly re-evaluate
• Escape routes should be established at all times
• More than one escape route must be available
• Most common escape route is the fireline

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LCES

• Locations where the threatened firefighter may
  find refuge from danger
• Place where a fire shelter is not needed
• Safety Zones must be established at all times
  during fireline operations
• Fireline intensity and safety zone topographic
  location determines the safety zone effectiveness
• Should be 1½ times the height of the surrounding
  vegetation or large enough to accommodate
  everyone without using fire shelters
• Stay alert to changing safety zone and escape
  route locations

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Unit 2 - Firefighter PreparednessLesson A -
Personal Preparedness
OBJECTIVES

• Develop a list of personal gear needed for an
  extended period away from your home station.
• Explain why it is necessary to have personal
  protective gear available.
• Explain the firefighters accountability for
  personal and agency property.
• Explain the importance of keeping personal gear
  and the assigned area clean and orderly.

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Unit 2 - Firefighter PreparednessMandatory Items

• PPE
• Hard hat
• Eye protection
• Hearing protection
• Gloves
• NomexTM
• Shirt
• Trousers
• Fire shelter

• Boots
• Leather
• Lace-up, 8 high
• Vibram soles
• Leather laces
• Socks
• Water bottles
• Head lamp

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Unit 2 - Firefighter PreparednessLesson B -
Organization
OBJECTIVES

• Explain the different types of crew organizations
  commonly used in initial attack and extended
  attack.
• Given a diagram of the Incident Command System,
  name the two positions, above the level of crew
  boss, that would be contacted if the crew boss is
  not available.

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Firefighter Preparedness

• Firefighter Duties and Responsibilities
• Fireline Handbook, page 92

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Firefighter Preparedness

• Crew Organization Advantages?
• Establishes chain of command
• Provides pre-planned job assignments
• Creates teamwork
• Gives individuals responsibility
• Reduces confusion
• Saves time
• Maintains control
• Builds esprit de corps
• Creates respect among crew members

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Unit 3 - Use of Tools EquipmentLesson A -
Cutting Tools
OBJECTIVES

• Given two hand tools, personal protective
  equipment, and proper maintenance tools, check
  the condition of each item, perform field
  mainenance, and identify those needing
  replacement.
• Demonstrate the proper sharpening techniques for
  commonly used tools.

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Unit 3 - Use of Tools EquipmentLesson A -
Cutting Tools (continued)
OBJECTIVES

• Given a description of three fireline jobs and a
  choice of tools, state which tool you would use
  for each job.
• Demonstrate the proper methods of carrying and
  passing tools.
• Demonstrate the proper spacing when using hand
  tools.
• Demonstrate the proper placement, near a
  fireline, of one or more tools when not in use.

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Unit 3 - Use of Tools EquipmentLesson B -
Scraping Tools
OBJECTIVES

• Given two hand tools and personal protective
  equipment, check the condition of each item,
  identify those that need replacement, and perform
  field maintenance.
• Demonstrate the proper sharpening techniques for
  commonly used tools.
• Given a description of three fireline jobs, and a
  choice of three tools, state which tools you
  would use for each job.

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Unit 3 - Use of Tools EquipmentLesson C -
Smothering Tools
OBJECTIVES

• Given a swatter or gunnysack and personal
  protective equipment, check the condition of the
  fire swatter and perform field maintenance.
• Demonstrate the proper methods of carrying and
  passing tools.
• Demonstrate the proper spacing when using hand
  tools.
• Demonstrate the proper placement, near a
  fireline, of one or more tools when not in use.

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Unit 3 - Use of Tools EquipmentLesson D -
Backpack Pump
OBJECTIVES

• Given a backpack pump and source of water, the
  trainee will demonstrate how to assemble, operate
  and maintain the pump.

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Unit 5 - Use of Water
OBJECTIVES

• Correctly identify the water use hand signals.
• Correctly identify common hose fittings.
• Identify different diameter hose and thread
  types.
• Identify and mark non-serviceable sections of
  hose and couplings.

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Unit 5 - Use of Water
OBJECTIVES (continued)

• Given hose and points A and B in the field,
  deploy the hose between the points.
• Describe a fire situation when the straight and
  fog spray nozzle water streams would be used.
• Demonstrate each of the nozzle settings for
  straight and fog spray patterns.

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Unit 6 - Suppression
OBJECTIVES

• Name the parts of a fire
• Describe three methods of attack on a fire.
• Describe four kinds of fire control line.
• Describe the black-line concept.
• Describe three methods for breaking the fire
  triangle.
• Describe five fire behavior terms.

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Unit 11 - Standards for SurvivalLesson A - Watch
Out Situations
OBJECTIVES

• List the Common Denominators on Tragedy Fires.
• List and Discuss the Watch Out Situations.

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Fire Operations in the Urban Interface

• STRUCTURE TRIAGE

HC-205
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STRUCTURE TRIAGE

• OBJECTIVES
• 1. LIST THE THREE structure triage categories
• 2. LIST FIVE BASIC factors upon which you base
  your triage decisions and give three examples of
  each.
• 3. LIST FOUR CONDITIONS that may mean the
  situation is hopeless.

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TRIAGE CATEGORIES

• Structures needing little or no attention for now
• Structures needing protection, but can be saved
• Structures that are hopeless

Not Threatened
Threatened
Lost, or too dangerous to protect
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THE DECISION PROCESS

• Look at the greatest potential threat
• Look at the probable threat
• When will the fire arrive and how long will it
  last?
• What can be done with the resources that are
  available?

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FACTORS AFFECTING TRIAGE DECISIONS

• The structure itself
• The surrounding fuels
• The fire behavior
• The available resources
• Firefighter safety

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Two houses are adjacent, 50 feet apart

• House 1 has wooden walls, a wood shake roof, and
  is surrounded on three sides by brush

• House 2 has better clearance, grass around the
  house, and a composition shingle roof

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CASE 1

• The fire is burning only the leaf litter, moving
  progressively past the two houses
• You have a full tank (500 gallons) of water and
  are the only engine available

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CASE 2

• The fire is burning the brush, hitting broadside,
  and threatening both houses at the same time
• You have 250 gallons of water left, and are the
  only engine available
• House 1 will receive direct flame impingement
• House 2 will receive only firebrands

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CASE 3

• As in Case 2, the fire is threatening both
  houses about the same time
• This time you have a full tank of water (500
  gallons)
• You can protect house 1 as the fire hits it, and
  in the process will significantly diminish the
  intensity at the head of the fire
• A second engine will be there within 5 minutes

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WHEN IS IT HOPELESS?

• The fire is making significant runs
• Spot fires are igniting
• Your water supply will not allow you to continue
  firefighting
• The roof is more than ¼ involved, in windy
  conditions
• Interior rooms are involved, and windows are
  broken, in windy conditions
• Your safety is in jeopardy

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Fire Operations in the Urban Interface

• TACTICS

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TACTICS Introduction

• Key Points
• Structure defense involves equipment and
  personnel that may (or may not) normally be
  assigned to wildland and/or structural
  firefighting.
• The moving fire controls the action. Resources
  defending structures must be mobile, resourceful,
  and self-reliant.
• Each situation is unique there are not simple,
  universal solutions.

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Reconnaissance

• Based on what you have seen
• establish your own priorities
• consider time remaining
• consider defensibility of the structures
• incoming resources

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Structure Triage

• Each arriving resource may have to perform
  structure triage

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ENGINE OPERATIONS
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Engine Access Positioning

• Negotiating the access
• Pay attention to landmarks and hazards
• Mark the route
• If necessary, mark escape routes and safety zones
• Back the engine into position from the last known
  turn around

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Engine Access Positioning

• Engine position
• Park off the road. Do not block access
• Do not park over flammable vegetation
• Park on the side of the structure that will
  minimize engine exposure to heat and blowing
  firebrands
• Park close enough, but not right next to, the
  structure to minimize the length of hose lines
• Avoid parking near hazards
• Leave the doors closed and windows rolled up

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Hose Lines and Nozzles

• Working lines
• Hose sizes (1½, 1, ¾)
• Deploy two lines, one around each side of
  structure, long enough to meet behind structure
  (? 200)
• Attach lines to the same side of the engine with
  shut-off valve at engine
• Lead lines behind the engine and not in the exit
  path

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Hose Lines and Nozzles

• Engine safety line
• Protection of the engine and crew
• Length of hose (1½) long enough to reach around
  the engine
• It must be easily reached and quickly charged by
  the crew
• It must not fall off if the engine is in motion

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Hose Lines and Nozzles

• Lines left or previously laid
• Working lines may be abandoned, but are still
  usable
• Lines can be laid prior to taking up a position
• Pre-laid lines should be left so they are easily
  noticed (flagged) and within reach of any
  incoming engine

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Confronting the Fire At the Structure

• Spotting Zone
• Firebrands are the major problem
• Firebrands may ignite new fires a mile or more
  ahead of the main fire
• Remain mobile enough to quickly reach any point
  within your area of responsibility
• Constantly check for new ignitions patrol and
  post lookouts
• Quickly attack any spot fire completely
  extinguish

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Confronting the Fire At the Structure

• Full Containment (around structure)
• The wildland fire can be stopped short of the
  structure
• The control line will completely surround the
  structure or will join adjacent control lines
• If possible, simply put the fire out when it
  reaches the control perimeter
• Otherwise, fire out from a control line

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Fighting Roof Fires
Flammable roofs are frequently ignited by
wildland fires

• Small roof fires (about ¼ involved)
• the key is quick attack
• extinguished from the outside
• make sure the fire is out remove shingles

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Fighting Roof Fires

• Fire spread across roof
• assume fire has spread into and through the roof
• Simultaneously, attack with lines from the
  exterior and interior
• Only agency personnel trained and equipped for
  structural firefighting are permitted to make an
  interior attack

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Water Foam Use

• Water Supplies
• Save ¼ tank reserve in your engine
• Take advantage of any opportunity to add water to
  your tank
• Know the characteristics of the water supply
• System capacity
• Flow rate
• Pressure
• Reliability

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Water Foam Use

• Water application
• Effective application is the key to conserving
  water and using it effectively
• Timing of water application
• Wetting down with water
• Reducing the heat build-up
• Duration of the heat wave
• Peak heat wave tactics

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Water ApplicationWetting Down w/ Water

• Wetting down is the application of water to fuel
  and structures before the fire arrives.
• Wetting down is usually a waste of time and water
• Wetting down takes large quantities of water, far
  out of proportion to the amount of fire it
  extinguishes
• In some instances, it can reduce ignitions

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Water ApplicationReducing Heat Build-up

• Water can be used to reduce or limit the
  potential build-up of heat
• Knock down the fire in surface fuels
• Prevent fire from getting into heavy, troublesome
  fuels

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Water ApplicationPeak Heat Wave Tactics

• Do not waste water by spraying at a wall of flame
  during the peak of the heat and smoke
• Seek refuge in the shade of something that blocks
  intense radiant heat
• Wait until you have an opportunity to do some
  good with your water
• Use water when and where you have the advantage,
  not on fire that is burning at its peak intensity

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Foam Use

• Class-A foam is an aggregation of small bubbles
  created by injecting air into a mixture of water
  and foam concentrate.
• When correctly applied, foam
• excludes the air from the fuel and envelopes the
  volatile combustible vapors at the fuel surface
• reflects radiant heat and absorbs heat of
  combustion
• clings to vertical surfaces
• releases water from its bubble structure at a
  reduced rate

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Attack Methods Using Foam

• Direct Attack
• Indirect Attack
• Structure Treatment
• Timing is critical
• Begin treating the structure 10-15 minutes before
  the expected front begins
• Foam should be applied to a structure by lofting
  the foam from a distance
• Fuel tanks and LPG containers can be coated

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Mobility

• Stay mobile
• Do not dig in
• If you must leave your position at a structure
• abandon the hose
• take only the fittings

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Retreating Returning

• It may be necessary to retreat due to intensity
  of the fire
• If returning to a structure after the main fire
  has passed, watch for hazards
• Downed power lines
• Burning snags
• Smoke

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BACKFIRE

• A backfire means to set fire along the inner edge
  of a control line to consume the fuel in the path
  of a wildfire and/or change the direction of
  force of the fires convection column
• The decision to backfire is made by the South
  Carolina Forestry Division, and is only initiated
  by Forestry

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Fire Size-up Considerations
OBJECTIVES

• Identify the four fuel groups and describe
  expected fire behavior in each
• Describe the size-up elements in a fire situation
  and determine the tactics to be used before
  beginning attack

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03-01-S231-SL
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03-02-S231-SL
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03-03-S231-SL
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03-07-S231-SL
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03-11-S231-SL
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Exercise 1Group Assignments (Fuel Groups)

• Each group will be responsible for one of the
  following fuel groups
• Grass Group
• Shrub Group
• Timber Litter Group
• Logging Slash Group

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Exercise 1

• For your assigned fuel group identify and list
  the following
• Rate of Spread
• Reaction to water
• Mop-up time required
• Duration of heat and flame
• Best engine type utilized
• Best method of attack (indirect, direct, or
  parallel)
• Provide examples of areas of the country where
  this fuel group is a concern

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Decisions to be Made

• How to implement LCES
• How to attack the fire (direct, parallel,
  indirect)
• Where to attack (rear, flanks, head)
• Location of control line
• Type of control line
• Are resources sufficient?

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Other Factors that Affect Decision Making

• Size of fire
• Fire environment
• Location of the fire head
• Time of the day
• Values/resources at risk

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Pincer Attack
Pinch off the head of the fire by working both
flanks simultaneously
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Tandem Attack
Direct attack along perimeter. Control resources
follow one another.
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