Technician Licensing Class

1
Technician Licensing Class
Pick a Date Pick Another Date!

• presented by the
• Chesapeake Amateur Radio Service
• W4CAR
• Chesapeake, Virginia

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Chapter 2Radio and Electronics Fundamentals
3
Equipment Definitions
4
Amateur Radio Station

• A transmitter converts sounds into radio
  signals.
• A receiver converts the radio signals back into
  sounds we can hear.
• When a transmitter and receiver are combined
  into a single unit it is called a transceiver.
• A power supply converts the wall outlet voltage
  to low voltage direct current.

5
Repeaters

• A repeater is a special type of station that
  receives and re-transmits signals over a wide
  area.
• A repeater extends the range of mobile and low
  power stations.

6
Repeater Diagram
7
Station Accessory Equipment

• A microphone converts sound waves to an
  electrical signal and connects to the
  transmitter (or transceiver)
• A speaker turns an electrical audio signal into
  sound waves.
• Headphones could be used in place of a speaker to
  help you hear in a noisy area.
• An amplifier can be used to increase the output
  of a 10 watt radio to 100 watts.

8
Electricity
9
Electrical Voltage Current

• Current is the flow of electrons in an electric
  circuit.
• The unit of measure is amperes or amps.
• An ammeter is used to measure current.
• Voltage is the force that makes electrons move
  causing current to flow.
• Voltage is measured with a voltmeter.

10
Resistance

• Resistance is the opposition to current flow.
  All materials have some resistance.
• The unit of measurement for resistance is the
  ohm.
• Materials which have a low resistance allowing
  electrons to flow easily are conductors.
• Copper is an example of a good conductor.
• Materials which have a very high resistance which
  does not allow current to flow are insulators.
• Glass is an example of a good insulator.

11
Water Flow is a Good Analogy to Current, Voltage,
and Resistance
12
Current, Voltage, Resistance are Interrelated

• Just like water flowing through a hose, changes
  in voltage, current, and resistance affect each
  other.
• The effect is mathematically expressed in Ohm's
  Law.

E I x R I E / R R E / I Where E
voltage, I current, and R Resistance
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Ohms Law
Electromotive Force VOLTS
The flow of electrons AMPERES
Resistance to current flow OHMS
14
Ohms Law Exercise

?? volts
2 ohms
0.5 amperes
_
What is the voltage across the resistor?
E I x R 0.5 x 2 1 volt
15
Ohms Law Exercise

?? volts
10 ohms
1 amperes
_
What is the voltage across the resistor?
E I x R 1 x 10 10 volts
16
Ohms Law Exercise

?? volts
10 ohms
2 amperes
_
What is the voltage across the resistor?
E I x R 2 x 10 20 volts
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Ohms Law Exercise

200 volts
100 ohms
_
A
What is the current through the resistor?
I E / R 200 / 100 2 amperes
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Ohms Law Exercise

240 volts
24 ohms
_
A
What is the current through the resistor?
I E / R 240 / 24 10 amperes
19
Ohms Law Exercise

120 volts
80 ohms
_
A
What is the current through the resistor?
I E / R 120 / 80 1.5 amperes
20
Ohms Law Exercise

90 volts
?? ohms
3 amperes
_
What is the value of the resistance in the
circuit?
R E / I 90 / 3 30 ohms
21
Ohms Law Exercise

12 volts
?? ohms
1.5 amperes
_
What is the value of the resistance in the
circuit?
R E / I 12 / 1.5 8 ohms
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Power

• When moving electrons do some work, power is
  consumed.
• The unit of measurement for power is Watts.
• Power is the product of voltage and current

P E x I E P / I I P / E
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Power Exercise
P E x I
If the voltmeter reads 13.8 volts and the ammeter
reads 10 amperes how much power is being consumed?
P E x I 13.8 x 10 138 watts
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Power Exercise
P E x I
If the voltmeter reads 120 volts and the ammeter
reads 2.5 amperes how much power is being
consumed?
P E x I 120 x 2.5 300 watts
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Power Exercise
P E x I or I P / E
If the power being consumed is 1200 watts and the
voltmeter reads 120 volts, how much current would
the ammeter read?
I P / E 1200 / 120 10 amperes
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Two Basic Kinds of Current

• When current flows in only one direction, it is
  called Direct Current (DC)
• Batteries are a common source of DC
• Most electronic devices are powered by DC
• When current flows alternatively in one direction
  then in the opposite direction, it is called
  Alternating Current (AC)
• Household current is AC

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Alternating Direct Current
V
DC
0V
AC
V-
time
28
System of Metric Units
giga G 109 1,000,000,000.0 mega
M 106 1,000,000.0 kilo K 103
1,000.0 basic unit 100
1.0 milli m 10-3
0.001 micro u 10-6
0.000001 nano n 10-9
0.000000001 pico p 10-12
0.000000000001
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Unit Conversion Practice

• 1,500,000 hertz ??? kHz

1500 KHz
1 kilovolt ???? volts
One thousand volts
1 microvolt ? ? volts
One one-millionth of a volt
500 milliwatts ? watts
0.5 watts
1500 milliamperes ? amperes
1.5 amperes
30
Circuit Protection

• A fuse interrupts excessive current flow by
  melting a short length of metal.
• Always replace a blown fuse with the same
  current rating as the original or excessive
  current could cause a fire.

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Signals Waves
32
Frequency
Is a measure of the number of times (cycles) per
second that an alternating current flows back and
forth.
1 Second
The basic or standard unit of frequency is the
Hertz.
60 hertz (Hz) means 60 cycles per second.
33
Wavelength

• The distance a radio wave travels in one cycle is
  called wavelength.

One Cycle
0
time
-
One Wavelength
34
Frequency Wavelength
As the frequency increases the wavelength gets
shorter.
35
Wavelength Formula

• To convert from frequency to wavelength

300 Freq (MHz)
Wavelength (m)
To convert from wavelength to frequency
300 Wavelength (m)
Frequency (MHz)
So, as the wavelength gets shorter the frequency
increases.
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More Frequency!

• A radio frequency (RF) wave is an electromagnetic
  oscillation or cycle that repeats more than
  20,000 times per second.
• An audio frequency (sound) wave is an oscillation
  or cycle that repeats between 20 and 20,000 times
  per second.
• Sound waves with a frequency between 300 and 3000
  cycles per second (Hertz) are called Voice
  Frequencies.

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Bands

• An amateur radio frequency may be identified by
  it's band which is based on the physical length
  of the radio wave, i.e. wavelength.

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Adding Information - Modulation

• When we imprint some information on a radio wave,
  we modulate the wave.
• Turn the wave on and off Morse Code
• Voice (Phone Transmission) AM or FM
• Data
• Different modulation techniques are called modes.

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Morse Code
41
Amplitude Modulation - AM
42
Single Sideband - SSB

• Single Sideband is a modification of amplitude
  modulation (AM).
• In SSB, the carrier and one of the side bands is
  removed.
• SSB is often used for long distance and weak
  signal contacts.
• An advantage of SSB over FM AM is it uses much
  less bandwidth

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Frequency Modulation - FM

• FM varies the frequency of the signal to carry
  the information.
• FM requires a much wider bandwidth than SSB.
• FM is used for VHF UHF voice repeaters.

44
Bandwidth
45
Antennas Feedlines
46
Polarization Antenna Types

• A horizontal antenna has elements aligned
  parallel to the earth's surface.
• A vertical antenna has elements aligned
  perpendicular to the earth's surface.
• Polarization is the direction in which the
  electric field of a radio wave is oriented.

Simple Dipole
Vertical
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Coaxial Cable

• Coaxial cable may be used to connect a radio to
  an antenna.
• Coaxial cable has a center wire inside an
  insulating material covered by a shield and an
  insulating cover.
• Coaxial cable is used more often than any other
  feedline because it's easy to use and requires
  few special installation considerations.
• The impedance of most coaxial cable used in
  amateur installations is 50 ohms.

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SWR Concepts

• In general terms, standing wave ratio (SWR) is a
  measure of how well a load (antenna) is matched
  to a transmitter.
• It is important to have a low SWR in an antenna
  system that uses coaxial cable feedline to allow
  the efficient transfer of power and reduce
  losses.
• A reading on a SWR meter of 1 to 1 (11)
  indicates a perfect impedance match between the
  antenna and the feed line.

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Measuring SWR

• An SWR meter is used to measure SWR.
• A Directional Wattmeter could be used to
  determine if your feedline and antenna are
  properly matched.

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SWR Concepts (cont.)

• A loose connection in your antenna or feedline
  might be indicated by erratic changes in SWR
  readings.
• Most modern solid-state transmitters have a
  built-in protection circuit that begins to reduce
  transmitter power when the SWR value reaches 2 to
  1 (21).
• The power lost in a feed line is converted into
  heat by losses in the line.

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Radio Propagation

• Propagation is the path radio waves travel from
  one station to another.
• Three basic types of propagation
• Line of Sight
• Ground Wave
• Sky Wave

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Line of Sight Propagation

• Line of sight propagation is when the
  transmitting and receiving stations are within
  direct sight of each other.
• The radio horizon is the point where radio
  signals between two points are blocked by the
  earth's curvature.

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VHF/UHF Propagation
VHF / UHF signals typically travel by line of
sight propagation
VHF / UHF signals can be blocked by and/or
reflected off mountains and large
buildings
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Multi-Path

• Radio waves can be bent by buildings or hills
  causing the signals to travel different paths.
• If one moment your signals are reported as strong
  but then weak you may need to move a few feet as
  random reflections may be causing multi-path
  distortion.
• Stations moving through an area where multi-path
  is present will hear fluttering or picket fencing.

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Ground Wave Propagation
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Atmospheric Layers
Ionosphere 31 400 miles
Stratosphere 6 31 miles
Troposphere 0 6 miles
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Regions in the Ionospheric
During the day....

• The D Region absorbs MF lower frequency HF
  radio signals
• The F2 Region is most responsible for long
  distance communication

At night....

• The D E Regions disappear
• The F1 F2 Regions combine into one with
  reduced ionization

58
Sky Wave Propagation

• At HF frequencies radio waves can be reflected by
  the Ionosphere.
• At VHF and higher frequencies the waves usually
  pass through the ionosphere.

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Sporadic E Propagation

• Small areas of the E Region can become highly
  ionized
• Allows long distance sky-wave propagation on the
  VHF bands
• Most likely to occur on the 6 meter band in the
  summertime
• By its name, it is sporadic

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Chapter 3Operating Station Equipment
61
Basic Transceiver Operation

• To select a frequency on which to operate use the
  keypad or VFO knob.
• The step function is used to set the tuning
  rate or the amount the frequency changes when
  turning the VFO knob.
• The function or F key is used to select
  alternate functions on the keypad.
• Frequencies may be stored in a memory channel to
  allow quick access to a particular frequency.
• In addition to the frequency, memory channels may
  also store CTCSS tones and transmit power level.

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Basic Transceiver Operation

• Many microphones have up and down buttons to
  raise or lower the frequency or memory channel.

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Basic Transmitter Functions

• On an AM/SSB/CW transmitter the output power is
  controlled by the RF Power control.
• The output power may also be controlled on AM/SSB
  transmitters by the Microphone Gain control.

65
Testing a Transmitter

• To test or adjust a transmitter it is a good idea
  to use a dummy load / antenna to avoid
  interfering with other stations.

66

Excessive Modulation

• If the microphone gain is set too high or you
  speak too loudly the signal may become distorted
  and unreadable.
• With an FM transmitter this is called
  over-deviation and causes the transmitted signal
  to become too wide (bandwidth).
• If you are told you are over deviating you can
  talk farther away from the microphone or speak
  more softly.

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Basic Receiver Functions

• A squelch circuit is used to quiet noise when no
  signal is being received.
• Receiver Incremental Tuning (RIT) allows you to
  adjust the receiver frequency without changing
  the transmit frequency.
• A noise blanker is used to cut down pulse noise
  which may be caused by vehicle ignition systems.

68
Repeater Operation

• When you transmit and receive on the same
  frequency you are operating simplex.
• When you want to operate through a repeater you
  transmit on one frequency and receive on a
  different frequency.
• To be able to use a repeater you need to know
  three things about the repeater
• It's output or transmitting frequency
• It's input or receiving frequency
• If an access control tone is required and, if so,
  the frequency of the tone

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Repeater Operation (cont.)

• Every repeater has an input and output
  frequency, i.e. the repeater receives on one
  frequency and transmits on a different
  frequency.
• You listen to a repeater on its output
  frequency.
• To send a signal through a repeater you transmit
  on its input frequency.
• The difference between a repeater's input and
  output frequencies is referred to as the
  repeater's offset or shift.

W4CAR Repeater
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Repeater Operation (cont.)

• Repeaters operate on standardized frequencies
  and use standardized offsets.
• In the 2 meter band the normal offset is or -
  0.6 MHz or 600 KHz
• In the 70 centimeter band the normal offset is
  or - 5 Mhz.
• VHF/UHF FM transceivers have a shift button or
  menu setting to adjust the offset between the
  transmit and receive frequency for non-standard
  repeaters.

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Repeater Operation (cont.)

• Repeater Access Tones (Hz)
• Most Common in WTX
• 88.5 Hz
• 146.2 Hz
• 162.2 Hz

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Data Communications - Packet

• Packet is a data mode.
• Packet uses a terminal node controller (TNC) to
  interface a computer and transceiver.
• On VHF an FM transceiver may be used for packet.
• Packet as well as some other data modes can use a
  computer sound card to connect to a radio for
  data transmission.

73
An amateur radio station used to connect other
amateur radio stations to the internet is called
a gateway.
PC User
Gateway
Internet
Repeater
Gateway
Repeater
74
Antenna Systems
75
Antennas - The 1/2 Wave Dipole
½ wavelength by formula

• One of the simplest types of antenna is a dipole.
• Dipoles are ½ wavelength long.
• Dipoles are typically parallel to the earth, i.e.
  horizontally polarized.

Feed Point
Coax
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The 1/2 Wave Dipole
½ wavelength by formula
Feed Point
Coax

• Or to quickly estimate take the meter band,
  divide in half and convert to feet (or inches).
• The length needed for a dipole gets shorter as
  the frequency increases.

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The 1/4 Wave Ground-Plane

• Another simple antenna is the ground-plane, often
  called a vertical.
• Typical ground-plane antennas are ¼ wavelength
  tall.
• Ground-planes are perpendicular to the earth,
  i.e. vertically polarized.

Feed Point
¼ Wave
¼ Wave Radials
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The 1/4 Wave Ground-Plane
234 f (MHz)
Length of ground-plane in feet
Feed Point
¼ Wave
Or to quickly estimate take the meter band,
divided by four and convert to feet (or inches).
¼ Wave Radials
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½ Wave ¼ Wave Exercise

• A half-wave dipole for the 6 meter band ???
  inches
• A quarter-wave vertical for 146 MHz ?? inches

112 inches
19 inches
80
Mobile VHF/UHF Antennas

• Typical mobile VHF/UHF antennas are 1/4
  wavelength and 5/8 wavelength verticals.
• A 5/8 wavelength is advantageous over a 1/4
  wavelength because it has a lower angle of
  radiation thus focusing more energy toward the
  horizon and extending range.
• An easily installed and removed mobile antenna is
  a magnetic mount vertical antenna.

2m 1/4 ?
70cm 1/4 ?
2m 5/8 ?
81
Beam Antenna

• A beam type antenna focuses transmitted (and
  received) power in one direction.
• This is called gain.
• Two types of beam antennas are the Yagi and the
  cubical quad.

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The Yagi
1
Feed Point
2
3
Driven Element
The Driven Element is approximately ½ wavelength
long.
Boom
Gain
Director
Reflector
Feedline
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Cubical Quad Antenna

• A cubical quad has two or more parallel
  four-sided wire loops, each approximately
  one-electrical wavelength long.

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Feedlines
85
Decibel (dB)
You will hear the term decibel used often with
regards to antennas and feedlines.
Just remember Every 3 dB increase is the same
as doubling the power and every 3 dB decrease is
the same as halving the power.
86
Coaxial Cable

• There are many different types of coaxial cable.
• One of the most important considerations when
  selecting a type of coaxial is the loss of the
  cable.
• Generally the smaller the cable, the higher the
  loss.
• Power lost in a coaxial cable is converted to
  heat by the losses in the line.

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Care Feeding of Coax

• The most common cause of failure of coax is
  moisture contamination.
• Therefore, weatherproof all outdoor connections.
• Coax exposed to weather and sunlight over the
  years can have losses increase.
• Most coaxial cable outer covering is black to
  provide protection against ultraviolet (sunlight)
  damage.

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Antenna Construction

• Most antennas are made of copper wire / tubing or
  aluminum tubing / rod.
• Stainless steel hardware is recommended for
  outdoor antennas as it is much less likely to
  corrode that regular steel.

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Power Supplies Batteries
91
Power Supplies

• Most modern amateur radio transceivers run off of
  12 volts DC.
• A power supply converts 120 volt AC from the
  power company into 12 volts DC for amateur radio
  equipment.
• A regulated power supply can protect equipment
  from voltage fluctuations.

92
Batteries

• Carbon-Zinc Alkaline
• Typically 1.5 volts or 9 volts per cell
• Not rechargeable
• Nickel-Cadmium (NiCd)
• Typically 1.2 volts per cell
• Rechargeable
• Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH)
• Typically 1.2 volts per cell
• Rechargeable
• Lithium Ion
• Typically 3.3 3.6 volts per cell
• Rechargeable
• Longest life by size of any of these batteries

93
Battery Tips

• To get the most energy (longest life) from a
  battery draw current from the battery at the
  slowest rate possible
• To keep rechargeable batteries in good condition
  and ready to go
• Regularly inspect for damage and replace if
  necessary
• Store in a cool and dry place
• Give them a maintenance recharge at least every 6
  months

94
Storage Batteries

• Storage batteries are generally the wet cell
  type batteries.
• Car batteries
• Marine / RV batteries
• Hazards to consider when dealing with a storage
  battery are
• Charging or discharging a storage too quickly
  could cause the battery to overheat or explode.
• Contains acid that can spill.
• Short circuits can damage wiring and possibly
  cause a fire.
• Explosive gas can collect if not properly vented.

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Handheld Transceivers
96
Handheld Transceivers

• A handheld transceiver, often referred to as a
  handi-talkie or HT, is a complete radio in a
  small package.
• Handhelds are available in single band or
  multiple band models.

97
HT Batteries

• Handheld transceivers are normally sold with a
  rechargeable battery.
• Nickel-metal Hydride
• Lithium Ion (Preferred)
• It's a good idea to also purchase a AA battery
  pack.

98
HT Antennas

• Most handheld transceivers come with a flexible,
  rubber covered antenna referred to as a rubber
  duck.
• Rubber duck antennas are not very efficient and
  do not transmit or receive as well as a full
  sized antenna.
• When using a rubber duck antenna inside a
  vehicle your signal can be 10 20 times weaker
  then when outside the vehicle.

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HT Antennas (cont.)

• Use of an external antenna with a handheld can
  make the signal stronger.
• Repeater antennas are vertically polarized since
  VHF/UHF mobile and handheld antennas are
  vertically polarized.
• When using a handheld to reach a repeater it is a
  good idea to keep the antenna as vertical as
  possible.
• When two stations are not using the same
  polarization signals between the two stations can
  be as much as 100 times weaker!

100
Radio Frequency Interference (RFI)

• Definition Un-wanted, un-intentional signals
  from or to an electronic device or appliance from
  or to a radio.

101
Types of RFI

• Direct detection offending signals get into the
  electronics circuits to cause interference.
• Most interference to telephones is because the
  radio signals are causing the telephone to act as
  a radio receiver.
• Adequate interference protection was not provided
  when manufactured.
• May be solved by installation of an RF filter on
  the telephone.

102
Types of RFI (cont.)

• Fundamental overload a strong signal from a
  nearby transmitter overwhelms a receiver such as
  a TV or FM radio.
• The owner of the TV or FM radio receiver is
  responsible for taking care of the interference
  caused by fundamental (front end) overload.
• Amateur radio receivers can also experience
  overload. This may cause sudden bursts of tones
  or fragments of different conversations to be
  heard.

103
Types of RFI (cont.)

• Harmonics even multiples of the desired signal
  are transmitted along with the desired signal.
• Every transmitter's output signal contains very
  weak harmonics.
• A misadjusted or defective transmitter may
  transmit strong harmonics.
• A harmonic may also be called a spurious
  emission.
• Spurious emissions may be reduced by installing a
  filter at the transmitter.

104
RFI Solutions

• RFI may be solved or reduced by
• Snap-on ferrite chokes
• May be attached to speaker wires, telephone
  wires, AC line cords
• Low-pass and high-pass filters
• Low pass filters are used at the
• output of an HF transmitter
• High pass filters are used at a TV input
• Notch and band-pass filters
• Notch and band-pass filters may be used at a
  transmitter or receiver to block or pass a
  certain frequency range.

105
Low-Pass Filter

A low-pass filter blocks RF energy above a
certain limit.
Low Pass Filter Switched In
No Filter
106
High-Pass Filter
A high-pass filter blocks RF energy below
a certain limit.
High Pass Filter Switched In
No Filter
107
Band Pass Filter
A band-pass filter blocks RF energy above and
below certain limits.
Band Pass Filter Switched In
No Filter
108
Cable TV

• Cable television systems are shielded / closed
  systems.
• A break in the shield of a cable may allow
  amateur radio transmissions to enter the system
  causing interference
• A break in the shield of a cable may also allow
  the cable system to interfere with an amateur
  radio receiver.

109
Noise Sources

• Interference TO amateur stations are usually
  caused by unintentional radiators sometimes
  referred to as Part 15 devices.
• Electrical arcs from motors, thermostats,
  electric fences, etc.
• Power lines
• Vehicle ignition systems a whine or buzz that
  varies with engine speed.
• Vehicle alternator high pitched whine that
  varies with engine speed, often on transmitted
  signal.

110
Dealing with RFI

• For RFI to an amateur station you can use
  direction finding techniques to
  locate the noise and,
  hopefully, eliminate it.
• If it's a Part 15 device in your neighbors home
  you can
• Work with your neighbor to identify the device
• Politely inform your neighbor about the rules
• Check your station
• For interference to something in a neighbors home
• First determine if your equipment is operating
  properly and that you are not causing
  interference to your own TV / radio / telephone /
  etc.
• Work with your neighbor to solve the problem

111
Chapter 4Communicating with other Hams
112
Contact Basics

• Always use good engineering and amateur practices
  when operating.
• No amateur station has exclusive use or priority
  on any frequency.
• Per the FCC rules, hams must use the minimum
  transmitter power necessary to get the job done.

113
Contact Basics (cont.)

• Don't use indecent or obscene language.
• It's prohibited by the FCC
• It is offensive to some individuals
• Children may be listening
• Use common sense as there is no list of
  prohibited words
• While not prohibited by the FCC, avoid offensive
  language such as racial and ethnic references.
• Political discussions, jokes stories, and
  religion are not prohibited but should probably
  be avoided.

114
Q Signals

• Q signals are abbreviations originally used while
  communicating with morse code.
• You may hear some Q signals on phone as well.
• Some common Q signals are
• QRM I am receiving interference from other
  stations.
• QSY I am changing frequencies.

115
Grid Locator

• A method of identifying a geographic location
  using a four letter identifier.
• For example, the grid locator for the Chesapeake
  area is FM16.
• Mostly used on VHF/UHF CW/SSB and for satellite
  work.

116
Helping Other Hams

• Always be ready to lend a helping hand,
  especially as you learn more.
• If you hear a newly licensed operator that is
  having trouble with their station, you should
  contact them and offer to help with the problem.
• For example, if you hear a garbled and broken up
  SSB signal it could be RF energy getting into the
  microphone circuit.

117
Band Plans

• A band plan is a voluntary guideline for using
  different operating modes within an amateur band.
• Band plans have been developed over the years by
  the amateur radio community.

118
Making a Contact

• When selecting a frequency on which to transmit
  always listen first to see if anyone is already
  using the frequency.
• One way of making a contact, particularly when
  using SSB or CW, is to call CQ.
• CQ means calling any station.
• Simply say CQ followed by your callsign.
• If using CW, send CQ at a speed you can reliably
  copy.

119
Making a Contact (cont.)

• To answer a CQ give the other station's
  callsign followed by your callsign.
• Before giving another station a call first make
  sure the frequency is permitted for your license
  class.
• Unless the FCC has declared a communications
  emergency, no one has exclusive use of any
  frequency.

120
ITU Phonetic Alphabet

• Words are internationally recognized substitutes
  for letters.
• Avoid cute phrases as they are not easily
  understood by non-English speaking amateurs.
• Generally not needed on repeaters except for
  difficult to understand callsigns.

121
Repeater Contacts

• On a repeater, instead of calling CQ, simply say
  your callsign.
• This is N5NA listening or N5NA monitoring
• If you know the callsign of a station you want to
  contact say the other station's call sign
  followed by your callsign.
• K5RS this is N5NA

122
Repeater Contacts

• Many repeaters have a courtesy tone that
  indicates when a transmission is complete.
• To enter a conversation between two stations
  simply say your callsign during a pause between
  their transmissions. (Note The book says use
  Break, this is wrong!)
• Pause briefly between transmissions to listen for
  anyone wishing to break into the conversation.

123
Using a Repeater

• When using or monitoring a repeater at some point
  it will ID in either voice or morse code so you
  can tell what repeater you are using.
• Etiquette
• Monitor before transmitting
• Identify legally
• Use no more power than is necessary
• The transmitting station, not the repeater owner,
  is responsible for any transmissions that violate
  the FCC rules.

124
Using a Repeater (cont.)

• If someone reports your signal into the repeater
  is distorted or weak it could be
• Your rig is slightly off frequency
• Your batteries may be getting low
• You're in a bad location
• Access to a repeater may be limited by the
  repeater owner if he so desires.
• A repeater which is restricted to a club or group
  is called a closed repeater.

125
Repeater Access Tone

• Continuous Tone Coded Squelch System (CTCSS)
  tones are sub-audible tones added to an FM
  carrier.
• Some repeater systems require CTCSS tones to
  access.
• To access a repeater, in addition to knowing the
  repeater offset or shift, as previously
  discussed, you must also know if a tone is
  required and what it is.

126
Linked repeater systems connect to one another to
provide wider coverage.
127
Repeater Coordination

• When a new repeater is planned to be installed in
  an area the frequency of the new repeater must be
  assigned a frequency by a frequency
  coordinator.
• Repeater frequencies are coordinated by a local
  frequency coordination group, usually at the
  state level.
• Frequency Coordination minimizes interference
  between repeaters and makes the most efficient
  use of available frequencies.

128
Simplex Operation

• Simplex operation is simply transmitting
  receiving on the same frequency.
• Simplex operation is encouraged to avoid tying up
  the repeater.
• You can check if simplex operation is possible by
  listening on the repeater's input frequency.

129
Internet Linked Repeaters

• Repeaters can be linked across the internet using
  Voice over IP (VoIP). Two examples of this
  technology are
• Echolink - www.echolink.org
• IRLP Internet Radio Linking Project -
  www.irlp.net

130
Internet Linked Repeaters (cont.)

• Echolink may be computer to computer or computer
  to repeater linking but IRLP is only repeater to
  repeater linking.
• Any licensed amateur radio operator may use the
  Echolink system.
• To find a list of active nodes using VoIP, try a
  repeater directory or the Internet website for
  each protocol.

131
Internet Linked Repeaters (cont.)

• When using a portable transceiver use the keypad
  to transmit the IRLP node numbers to select a
  specific IRLP node.
• If you hear a brief tone and then a station from
  Russia calling CQ on a 2-meter repeater, you are
  hearing an Internet linked DX station.

132
Nets

• Net is short for Network
• Evolved over the years as a method to meet on the
  air and share news and exchange messages.
• Social Nets
• Traffic Nets National Traffic System (NTS)
• Emergency Public Service Nets

133
Net Control

• A net control station (NCS) conducts the
  net following established net
  procedures.
• One of the most important attributes for a net
  control station is a strong and clear signal.
• The Net Control Station must be alert for
  emergency traffic (messages). He or she must
  immediately stop all net activity until the
  emergency (or emergencies!) has been handled.
• If a large scale emergency has just occurred and
  no net control station is available, open the
  emergency net immediately and ask for check-ins.
  You can pass control to someone else later.

134
Emergency Nets

• Traffic nets rate traffic by priority
• Emergency Highest Priority!
• Priority
• Regular
• Health and Welfare
• Once you have checked in to an emergency traffic
  net, do not transmit on the net frequency until
  asked to do so by the net control station to
  minimize disruptions.
• The name of the person originating the message
  must always be included when passing emergency
  messages.

135
Formal Messages

• The preamble of a message is the information
  needed to track the message as it passes through
  the amateur radio traffic handling system.
• The check, in an NTS message, is a count of the
  number of words in the message
• The recommended maximum number of words in the
  text of an emergency message is 25 words.

136
Supporting Emergency Operations

• One of the primary reasons for the existence of
  Amateur Radio
• In a genuine emergency situation you may use any
  equipment on any frequency to respond. For
  example
• Communicating with stations in other radio
  services
• Using modified amateur equipment to transmit on
  the local fire department frequency.

137
Supporting Emergency Operations (cont.)

• FCC rules always apply when supporting emergency
  operations.
• You CAN NOT use your amateur radio equipment to
  make news reports.
• Personal information concerning victims should
  not be sent over amateur radio frequencies.
• Packet radio or morse code could be used to pass
  sensitive emergency traffic to minimize being
  overheard by the general public.

138
Emergency Declarations

• In a widespread emergency, the FCC may
  declare a temporary state of communications
  emergency.
• The declaration will contain any special
  conditions and rules to be observed in the
  affected area.
• Amateur radio communications must avoid the
  frequencies dedicated to supporting the emergency
  unless you are participating.
• An FCC declaration is the ONLY method of
  restricting a frequency to emergency only
  communications.
• Lacking an FCC declaration, NO STATION has
  exclusive use of any frequency.

139
Making an Emergency Call

• An emergency call may be made when there is an
  immediate threat to human life or property
• To make an emergency call say Mayday, Mayday,
  Mayday followed by any station come in please
  and identify your station.
• In a genuine emergency you can use non-amateur
  frequencies or equipment to call for help - if
  you have no other means of communication
  available.
• Another way to call for help is to transmit SOS
  in morse code.

140
Emergency means EMERGENCY!

• The penalties for making a false emergency call
  can include any or all of the following
• You could have your license revoked.
• You could be fined a large sum of money.
• You could be sent to prison.

141
Receiving an Emergency Call

• If you are in contact with another station and an
  emergency call is heard stop your contact
  immediately and take the emergency call.
• If you hear someone reporting an emergency on the
  air, always assume the emergency is real and act
  accordingly.
• Emergency communications has priority at all
  times in the Amateur Radio Service.
• Priority must be given to stations providing
  emergency communications at all times and on all
  frequencies.

142
Tactical Call Signs

• Using tactical call signs such as "command post"
  or "weather center" helps coordinate
  public-service communications and is more
  efficient during an emergency.
• Tactical call signs do not satisfy the FCC
  regulations for station identification.

143
Emergency Equipment

• Alternate power sources in a
  emergency may include
• The battery in a car or truck
• A bicycle generator
• A portable solar panel
• If commercial power is unavailable one way to
  recharge a 12 volt battery is to connect it to a
  car's battery and run the engine.
• When using a hand held transceiver away from home
  it is a good idea to have one or more fully
  charged spare battery packs.
• A headset is useful when operating in a noisy
  environment.

144
Being Prepared

• To be prepared should an emergency situation
  arise you can
• Check your emergency equipment at least twice a
  year
• Make sure you have a way to run your equipment in
  the event of a power failure.
• Participate in drills and operate in Field Day.

145
ARES RACES

• ARES
• Amateur Radio Emergency Service.
• Is an organization of amateur radio operators.
• RACES
• Radio Amateur Civil Emergency Service.
• Is coordinated and managed by civil emergency
  authorities.
• Both organizations provide communications during
  emergencies.

146
ARES

• You must have an amateur radio license before you
  can join an ARES group.
• The primary function of ARES in relation to
  emergency activities is to support agencies like
• The Red Cross
• Salvation Army
• National Weather Service
• Others

147
RACES

• In order to participate in RACES activities, you
  must register with the responsible civil defence
  organization.
• RACES organizations are restricted to serving
  local, state, and federal government emergency
  management agencies.

148
Special Modes Techniques
149
Contests Special Events

• Amateur radio contesting is a competition in
  which the objective is to contact and exchange
  information with as many stations as possible
  during a fixed time period.
• Another type of competition is foxhunting in
  which a receiver with a directional antenna is
  used to locate a hidden transmitter.
• A special event station is a temporary station
  set up to operate in conjunction with an activity
  of special significance.

150
Satellites

• Using amateur satellites you can talk to amateur
  radio operators in other countries.
• Any amateur whose license allows them to
  transmit on the satellite uplink frequency can
  use a satellite.
• Don't forget to always use the minimum amount of
  power needed to complete the contact to a
  satellite.
• AMSAT is the group that coordinates the building
  and/or launch of most amateur radio satellites
  (amsat.org).

151
Satellites (cont.)

• A satellite tracking program can help you to
  determine when you can access an amateur
  satellite.
• Doppler shift is change in signal frequency
  caused by motion through space. You have to
  change frequencies during the pass!
• Satellite beacons are signals that contain
  information about the satellite.

152
Satellites (cont.)

• Satellite communications are permitted in a
  portion of a band called a satellite sub band.
• The satellite sub-band on 70-CM is 435 to 438
  MHz.
• LEO means the satellite is in a Low Earth Orbit.

153
Digital Modes

• A digital mode sends information by turning a
  signal on and off or slightly changing the
  signal's frequency.
• Most digital modes use a computer and keyboard.
• Some digital modes are
• Smoke signals (Optical)
• Morse code
• Radio Teletype (RTTY)
• AMTOR PACTOR
• Packet
• PSK31

154
Digital Sounds

• RTTY
• AMTOR
• PACTOR
• Packet
• PSK31
• CW

155
Digital Modes - Packet

• One reason to use digital modes instead of analog
  modes like SSB or FM is many digital modes
  automatically correct errors.
• Packet radio is the most common digital mode used
  on VHF and UHF.

156
Digital Modes - PSK31

• One of the most popular digital modes on HF is
  PSK31, which stands for Phase Shift Keying, 31
  baud.
• PSK31, at 31 baud, is a low-rate (slow speed)
  data transmission mode that works well in noisy
  conditions.
• PSK31 uses a computer sound card connected to a
  transceiver to transmit and receive data.

157
Digital Modes - APRS

• APRS stands for Automatic Position Reporting
  System
• APRS uses packet radio to send out location
  reports based data from a global positioning
  system (GPS) receiver.

158
Image - ATV

• Amateur TV (ATV) is just like regular TV and is
  typically transmitted on the UHF microwave
  bands.
• ATV uses standard fast scan color television
  signals termed NTSC.
• A cable ready TV can be used to monitor ATV on
  the 70 cm band.

159
Radio Control of Model Craft

• An example of one-way communication permitted by
  the FCC is radio control (telecommand) of model
  craft.
• Amateur radio operators may use up to 1 watt of
  output power for telecommand.
• Station identification is not required if the
  transmitter is labeled with the licensee's name,
  address, and call sign.

160
Chapter 5Licensing Regulations
161
Why Amateur Radio?
The basis purpose of the amateur service
consists of five principles

• Recognition and enhancement of the value of the
  amateur service to the public as a voluntary
  non-commercial communication service,
  particularly with respect to providing emergency
  communications.
• Continuation and extension of the amateurs
  proven ability to contribute to the advancement
  of the radio art.
• Encouragement and improvement of the amateur
  service through rules which provide for advancing
  skills in both the communication and technical
  phases of the art.

162
Why Amateur Radio? (Cont'd)

• Expansion of the existing reservoir within the
  amateur radio service of trained operators,
  technicians and electronics experts.
• Continuation and extension of the amateurs
  unique ability to enhance international goodwill.

163
The FCC

• The Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
  makes and enforces the rules for the Amateur
  Radio Service in the United States.
• The FCC is also the agency that will issue your
  amateur radio license.

164
Who, What, Where

• An amateur radio operator, as defined in Part 97
  of the FCC rules, is a person named in an
  amateur operator/primary license grant in the
  FCC ULS (Universal Licensing System) database.
• An amateur radio station is defined as a station
  in the amateur radio service consisting of the
  apparatus necessary for carrying on radio
  communications.
• A U.S. amateur license allows you to transmit
  wherever the Amateur Radio Service is regulated
  by the FCC or where reciprocal agreements are in
  place.

165
Qualifying for a License

• Anyone can become an amateur radio licensee
  except a representative of a foreign government.
• There are no minimum or maximum age limits
• Element 2, a 35 question multiple choice exam,
  must be passed for a Technician amateur license.

166
The License

• An Amateur Radio license consists of a combined
  operator license and station license.
• The operator license gives you permission to
  operate an amateur station.
• The station license authorizes you to have an
  amateur station.
• The Family Radio Service , General Radio Service,
  and Citizens Radio Service are NOT issued
  operator station licenses.
• Each person may hold only ONE amateur operator /
  primary station license.

167
Amateur Radio Licenses

• Technician
• General
• Amateur Extra

168
Exams

• A Volunteer Examiner (VE) is a an amateur,
  accredited by a Volunteer Examiner Coordinator
  (VEC), who volunteers to administer amateur
  license exams.
• To administer an Element 2 Technician exam
  requires three VE's holding a General Class
  license or higher.

169
CSCE

• Certificate of Successful Completion of
  Examination (CSCE) is issued for each exam
  element you pass.
• A CSCE is valid for 365 days for license upgrade
  purposes.

170
License Details

• After passing your exam, you may get on the air
  as soon as your license grant appears in the FCC
  ULS database.
• Amateur licenses are valid for 10 years.
• If you forget to renew your license you have a 2
  year grace period to renew it without having to
  re-take the exam.
• You may not transmit at all until your license is
  renewed and it appears in the FCC ULS database.

171
Licensee Responsibilities

• Your station must be operated in accordance with
  the FCC rules.
• Unlicensed persons must not be allowed to operate
  your station if you are not there.
• This could be accomplished by disconnecting the
  power and microphone cables when you are not
  there.

172
Licensee Responsibilities (cont.)

• You must keep your name and address up-to-date
  with the FCC in the event they need to contact
  you. You can do this online.
• If mail is returned to the FCC as undeliverable
  they could revoke or suspend your license!
• The FCC may inspect your station at any time.

173
Frequency Bands
For questions dealing with what frequency is in a
particular band or vice versa use the following
formula
300 Freq (MHz)
Band (m)
300 Band (m)
Freq (MHz)
174
Wavelength Formula Exercise

• Which band are you using when transmitting on
  146.52 MHz?

300 freq (MHz)
Wavelength (m)
300 146.52 MHz
Wavelength (m)
2.05 m 2 m
175
Wavelength Formula Exercise

• Which frequency is within the 6-meter band?
• 49.00 MHZ, 52.525 MHz, 28.50 MHz, or 222.15 MHz

300 Band (m)
Freq (MHz)
300 6 m
Freq (MHz)
50 MHz 52.525 MHz
176
Wavelength Formula Exercise

• Which 23 centimeter frequency is authorized to a
  Technician class license holder?
• 2315 MHZ, 1296 MHz, 3390 MHz, or 146.52 MHz

300 Band (m)
Freq (MHz)
300 0.23 m
Freq (MHz)
1304 MHz 1296 MHz
177
Band Restrictions

• Some bands have mode restricted sub-bands
• 6 meters 50.0 to 50.1 MHz CW Only
• 2 meters 144.0 to 144.1 MHz CW Only
• 1¼ meters 219 to 220 MHz Digital Message
  Forwarding
• Just remember.....restrictions exist for 1¼
  meters and down.
• Some amateur bands are available on a secondary
  basis and may not cause harmful interference to
  the primary users (60 meters).

178
International Rules
179
International Telecommunications Union

• The ITU is the international body that oversees
  communications regulation.
• The ITU has divided the world into three Regions,
  used to assist in the management of frequency
  allocations.

180
International Operating / Contacts

• You can use your amateur radio license in
  countries that have a reciprocal operating
  agreement with the US.
• You can communicate with any amateur in another
  country unless the FCC specifically prohibits it.

181
Callsigns
182
Amateur Radio Call Signs

• The FCC assigns call signs by the ITU prefix
  letters, call district numeral, and a suffix in
  alphabetic order.
• In the U.S. call signs begin with A, K, N, or W
  and have a single digit between 0 and 9
• Typical valid call signs KG4WOJ, W5CDR, KI4IRL,
  K4PRB, WF4R, AC5ST
• Calls are always assigned in sequential order,
  i.e. KI4TCI was assigned 1/5/07, next call
  assigned will be KI4TCJ.

183
(No Transcript)
184
U.S. Call Districts
KL7
KH6
185
Extra Identifiers

• You may add extra identifiers to
  your callsign such as
• Portable or /P on CW
• Mobile or /M on CW
• QRP or /QRP on CW
• Aeronautical Mobile
• However, the extra identifier must not conflict
  with an indicator specified by the FCC rules or a
  prefix assigned to another country.
• For example, /AG is an FCC specified designator
  for someone who has upgraded to a General class
  license. AG stands for Authorized General

186
More on Call Signs

• You may request a special call, for example your
  initials, under the Vanity call sign program
• A ham radio club that has four or more members
  can request a club station callsign
• Chesapeake Amateur Radio Service W4CAR
• A club must apply for a license through a Club
  Station Call Sign Administrator, not the FCC.
• Any FCC licensed amateur may request a Special
  Event Callsign with a 1-by-1 format.

187
Chapter 6Operating Regulations
188
A Control Operator....

• Is an amateur operator who is responsible for the
  station's transmissions to assure compliance with
  the FCC rules.

189
Control Operator Function

• Every station must have a control operator any
  time the station is transmitting.
• To be a control operator you must be named in the
  FCC amateur license database.
• The control operator for a repeater station must
  have at least a Technician class license.
• The location where the control operator function
  is performed is the control point.

190
Operating Another Station

• When a higher license class amateur is the
  control operator for your station the privileges
  of the higher license are allowed but special
  identification procedures must be followed.
• If a Technician licensee is the control operator
  at the station of a General class licensee he
  must stay within the limits of a Technician class
  license.
• If you are operating from another amateur's
  station both you and the other amateur are
  responsible.

191
Station Identification

• You must identify with your callsign at least
  every 10 minutes during and at the end of a
  contact.
• If you communicate with someone without
  identifying you have made an unidentified
  communication.
• Whenever transmissions are made to test equipment
  on the air you must identify, otherwise you have
  made an illegal, unidentified transmission.
• If you are using a language other then English
  you must identify in English.

192
Station Identification

• When you visit a station and you have a higher
  class license than the station licensee and you
  operate on a frequency outside his operating
  privileges you must identify by sending his
  callsign followed by your call sign.
• Repeater stations may identify by
• Phone (Voice) in English
• Video Image
• Morse Code at a speed no faster than 20 words per
  minute
• When using a Special Event 1 x 1 callsign you
  must identify with your regular assigned callsign
  once per hour.

193
Interference

• A transmission that disturbs other communications
  is called harmful interference.
• If someone reports that you are causing
  splatter or interference on nearby frequencies
  you should check that your transmitter is on
  frequency and not causing spurious emissions.
• When testing your transmitter always use a dummy
  load.
• If you unintentionally interfere with another
  station simply identify your station and move to
  a different frequency.
• You may never deliberately interfere with another
  station.

194
Third Party Communications

• A message from an amateur station (1st party) to
  another amateur station (2nd party) on behalf of
  another person (3rd party)

Examples include

• Passing a message
• Making a phone patch
• Allowing an unlicensed person to talk on the radio

195
Station Control

• There are three types of station control
  permitted and recognized by
  the FCC when operating a transmitter.
• Local control The operator is physically
  present at the transmitter / control point.
• Almost all amateur stations.
• Remote control The control point is located
  away from the transmitter but the operator is
  located at the control point.
• Control may be over the internet, phone lines, or
  radio.
• Automatic control The transmitter is
  controlled by devices procedures that insure
  compliance with the FCC rules. A control
  operator may not be controlling the stations at
  all times.
• Repeaters, beacons, satellites

196
Prohibited Transmissions

• No unidentified tran