MODULE 7

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MODULE 7 Environment technologies

• MODULE 7
• ENVIRONMENTAL TECHNOLOGIES
• AIRES
• (Spain)

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This project has been funded with support from
the European Commission. This publication
reflects the views only of the author, and the
Commission cannot be held responsible for any use
which may be made of the information contained
therein.
MODULE 7 Environment technologies
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INTRODUCTION Environment technologies

• CONTENTS
• Introduction
• 1. Waste Management
• 2. Air Pollution Control
• 3. Wastewater Control
• 4. Soil Pollution Control
• 5. Noise Control
• 6. Monitoring Technologies

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INTRODUCTION Environment technologies

• INTRODUCTION
• Technology development is key to ensure
  environmental efficiency and legal compliance
  when applying EMAS
• Links between EMAS and environmental technologies
  can be summarized in the following aspects
• Environmental policy might include the will to
  use cleaner technologies or Best Available
  Technologys
• Skills and competences of the labour force have
  to be sufficiently updated and balanced with
  technology used.
• Objectives and targets have to be designed taking
  into account environmental performance (planned
  and actual) and technology changes.
• Operational control and non-compliance management
  require a periodic assessment and review of the
  technological means.
• Auditing process and team shall correspond to the
  technology development of the organization.

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INTRODUCTION Environment technologies

• INTRODUCTION
• Several environmental technologies are presented,
  covering the following issues
• Waste
• Air Pollution
• Wastewater
• Soil
• Noise
• Monitoring
• Module covers environmental technologies suitable
  for small and medium enterprises, public agencies
  and environmental organizations, taking into
  account investment costs and know-how. Expensive
  or high-developed technologies might have not
  been presented in the module then.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies
1. WASTE MANAGEMENT
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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• CONTENTS
• Background
• Identification and Classification
• Techniques
• Types of waste
• Selecting technology

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• BACKGROUND
• Waste management is one of the most important
  environmental problem of the world. Exist
  different technologies to apply to manage the
  waste that human activities generate.  
• Best option to combat the wastes accumulation
  problems, is always the reduce of generation
  wastes, then the reuse of wastes, and finally the
  recycling of wastes. Sometimes is necessary the
  treatment and disposal of wastes.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• IDENTIFICATION CLASSIFICATION
• Waste is identified and classified according
  Directive 2000/532/CE, related with the source of
  waste.
• Organization of the waste list is set by codes,
  giving a two-digit code to type of industry or
  industrial processes that generate waste.
• A four-digit code is associated to subindustrial
  sectors or subprocesses from waste is generated.
• Finally, each type of waste has a six-digit code.
  

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• The techniques used to manage wastes are of three
  types
• Volume Reduction technologies (mechanical,
  physical and chemical)
• Treatment and disposal of wastes technologies
  (biodegradation, solidification,
  stabilization,..)
• Ultimate disposal of wastes

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• Volume reduction technologies
• Concentrating methods as vacuum filtration,
  rotatory drum pre coat-filter, pressure
  filtration, centrifuge dewatering thickeners.
• Size reduction methods, as hammer mills,
  shredding machines, crushers, pulverisers and
  hoggers.
• Treatment and disposal wastes technologies
• Recycling wastes is the most effective technology
  to prevent the environmental problems.  

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• Physical methods of waste treatment as primary
  treatment, polishing, secondary treatment,
  disposal resource recovery and discharge recycle.
• Chemical treatment as acid / base
  neutralization,chemical precipitation,
  electrolysis, hydrolysis, chemical extraction and
  leaching, ion exchange
• Photolytic reactions as a technique to transform
  hazardous wastes in arid wastes with free photons
  of ultraviolet radiation.
• Thermal treatment methods of incineration systems
  like rotary-klin incineration, liquid injection,
  fixed-hearth incinerators and fluidized bed
  incinerators.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• Biodegradation wastes as the process to convert a
  by biological processes an organic wastes in a
  inorganic wastes. Processes as biodegradability,
  aerobic treatment and anaerobic treatment.
• Land treatment and composting. Land treatment is
  the technique to modify the characteristics of
  soil to treat the wastes inside this. And
  composting is the technique to biodegrade the
  wastes introducing the wastes inside the soil,
  keeping act the natural reactions of the same
  soil.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• Ultimate disposal of wastes
• Landfilling as the technique that dispose the
  wastes in the land,other techniques are disposal
  aboveground, surface impoundment of liquids and
  deep-well disposal of liquids
• Incineration as a ultimate disposal of wastes
  when the ash of this incineration result arid
  wastes.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• TYPES OF WASTES
• The types of wastes are divided in
• Municipal wastes
• Medical wastes
• Hazardous wastes
• Industrial wastes

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• TYPES OF WASTES
• Municipal wastes
• Determining waste generation. The most commonly
  used method is the estimating the waste quantity
  is to weight the waste requiring disposal. The
  second ,method is to determine the volume of
  waste which is being generated and use known
  density factors to convert this into the
  associated weight. And the third method is to
  determine the population of the area and then
  multiply this by typical waste generation
  factors.
• Reuse reduce and recycling these three methods
  are the most important methods in strategic plans
  of waste management for municipalities.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• TYPES OF WASTES
• Combustion is one of the most used technology to
  eliminate waste. Can comprise at same time,
  different types of incineration systems.
• And finally landfilling is the historical method
  to treat the wastes, but many countries have not
  sufficient land to keep on involving.
• Medical Waste
• Packaging and storage, is an important factor of
  this kind of waste, for the condition of
  infectious waste.
• Treatment and disposal of infectious waste with
  processes as thermal, melting, shredding,
  grinding, tearing or breaking.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• TYPES OF WASTES
• Incineration, hospital waste incineration
  involves the application of combustion processes
  under controlled conditions to convert wastes
  infectious and pathological material to inert
  mineral residues and gases. The incineration
  systems are the same than other type of wastes.
• Microwaving, chemical disinfections processes,
  irradiation processes and plasma systems are
  other kind of techniques to treat the medical
  wastes.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• TYPES OF WASTES
• Hazardous waste treatment
• Physical methods as separation, filtration,
  transition, distillation, evaporation,
  precipitation, transfer, extraction, sorption,
  membrane separations, reverse osmosis, hyper-and
  ultra filtration.
• Chemical treatments as chemical precipitation,
  oxidation / reduction Ion exchange, acid / base
  neutralization and chemical extraction and
  leaching reduction.
• Thermal methods as incineration, the same systems
  than before.
• And biodegradability as a technique to convert
  the hazardous wastes into a nonhazardous wastes.

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• TYPES OF WASTES
• Industrial wastes
• The methods and techniques to manage the
  industrial wastes are the same methods and
  techniques that describe the rest of chapters.
• Reduce, reuse and recycling
• Reduction methods
• Treatment methods
• Incineration systems
• Landfilling

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WASTE MANAGEMENT Environment technologies

• SELECTING TECHNOLOGY
• Options for treatment techniques for the various
  types of waste, types treatment equipment,
  treatment sites and various waste handling
  practices all need to be carefully evaluated.
• The selection of available options at a facility
  depends upon a number of factors such as the
  nature of the waste, the quantity of waste
  generated, the availability of equipment for
  treatment on site and of site, regulation
  constraints, and cost considerations.
• We recommend the opinion of environment engineers
  experts to decide which technique apply in any
  case.

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies
2. AIR POLLUTION CONTROL
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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• CONTENTS
• Background
• Equipment
• Techniques
• Factors
• Selecting technology

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• BACKGROUND
• Controlling the emission of pollutants from
  industrial and domestic sources is important in
  protecting the quality of air. Air pollutants can
  exist in the form of particulate matter or as
  gases.
• Air cleaning devices have been reducing pollutant
  emissions from various sources for many years.
• Originally, air cleaning equipment was used only
  if the contaminant was highly toxic or had some
  recovery value.

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• EQUIPMENT
• Equipment used to control particulate emissions
  are
• Gravity settlers (often referred to as settling
  chambers)
• Mechanical collectors (cyclones)
• Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)
• Scrubbers
• Fabric filters
• Hybrid systems

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• EQUIPMENT
• Gravity settlers (often referred to as settling
  chambers)
• Gravity settlers, or gravity settling chambers,
  are used industrially for the removal of solid
  and liquid waste materials from gaseous streams.
• Advantages accounting for their use are simple
  construction, low initial cost and maintenance,
  low pressure losses, and simple disposal of waste
  materials.
• Mechanical collectors (cyclones)
• Centrifugal separators, commonly referred to as
  cyclones, are widely used in industry for the
  removal of solid and liquid particles (or
  particulates) from gas streams.  

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• EQUIPMENT
• Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)
• They are satisfactory devices for removing small
  particles from moving gas streams at high
  collection efficiencies. They have been used
  almost universally in power plants for removing
  fly ash from the gases prior to discharge.
• Two major types of high-voltage ESP
  configurations currently used are tubular and
  plate. Tubular precipitators consist of
  cylindrical collection tubes with discharge
  electrodes located on the axis of the cylinder.
  Vast majority of ESPs installed are of the plate
  type.
• Collected particles are usually removed by
  rapping.

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• EQUIPMENT
• Scrubbers (venturi scrubbers)
• Wet scrubbing involves the technique of bringing
  a contaminated gas stream into intimate contact
  with a liquid.
• Wet scrubbers include all the various types of
  gas absorption equipment.
• The term "scrubber" will be restricted to those
  systems which utilize a liquid, usually water, to
  achieve or assist in the removal of particulate
  matter from a carrier gas stream.

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• EQUIPMENT
• Fabric filters (bag houses)
• Filtration process may be conducted in many
  different types of fabric filters.Differences may
  be related to
• Type of fabric
• Cleaning mechanism
• Equipment
• Mode of operation
• Gases to be cleaned can be either "pushed" or
  "pulled" through the bag house.
• In the pressure system (push through) the gases
  may enter through the cleanout, hopper in the
  bottom or through the top of the bags.
• In the suction type (pull through) the dirty
  gases are usually forced through the inside of
  the bag and exit through the outside.

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• EQUIPMENT
• Hybrid systems are defined as those types of
  control devices that involve combinations of
  control mechanisms-for example, fabric filtration
  combined with electrostatic precipitation.
• Four of the major hybrid systems found in
  practice today include
• Wet electrostatic precipitators,
• Ionizing wet scrubbers,
• Dry scrubbers, and
• Electrostatically augmented fabric filtration.

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• Applicability of a given technique depends on the
  physical and chemical properties of the pollutant
  and the exhaust stream.
• More than one technique may be capable of
  controlling emissions from a given source
• Techniques used to control gaseous emissions are

Adsorption
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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• Absorption
• Mass transfer operation in which a gas is
  dissolved in a liquid.
• A contaminant (pollutant exhaust stream) contacts
  a liquid, and the contaminant diffuses from the
  gas phase into the liquid phase.
• The liquid most often used for absorption is
  water.
• Reagents can be added to the absorbing water to
  increase the removal efficiency of the system.
  Gas absorbers or wet scrubbers are designed to
  provide good mixing of the gas and liquid phases.
  
• The devices used for gas absorption are often the
  same as those used in particulate emission
  scrubbing.
• These include packed towers, plate towers, spray
  columns, and venturi scrubbers.

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• Adsorption
• Mass transfer process that involves removing a
  gaseous contaminant by adhering it to the surface
  of a solid.
• It can be classified as physical or chemical. In
  physical adsorption, a gas molecule adheres to
  the surface of the solid due to an imbalance of
  natural forces (electron distribution).
• In chemisorption, once the gas molecule adheres
  to the surface, it reacts chemically with it.
• The major distinction is that physical adsorption
  is readily reversible whereas chemisorption is
  not.

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• Combustion
• Combustion is defined as rapid, high-temperature
  gas-phase oxidation.
• Simply, the contaminant (a carbon-hydrogen
  substance) is burned with air and converted to
  carbon dioxide and water vapor.
• The operation of any combustion source is
  governed by the three T's of combustion
  temperature, turbulence, and time.
• Combustion devices can be categorized as flares,
  thermal incinerators, or catalytic incinerators

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• Condensation
• Process in which the volatile gases are removed
  from the contaminant stream and changed into a
  liquid.
• It is usually achieved by reducing the
  temperature of a vapor mixture until the partial
  pressure of the condensable component equals its
  vapor pressure.
• Requires low temperatures to liquefy most pure
  contaminant vapors.
• It is affected by the composition of the
  contaminant gas stream.
• Condensers are normally used in combination with
  primary control devices.
• Condensers can be located upstream of (before) an
  incinerator, adsorber, or absorber.

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• FACTORS
• There are a number of factors to be considered
  prior to selecting a particular piece of air
  pollution control hardware.

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• FACTORS
• Environmental factors
• Equipment location
• Available space
• Ambient conditions
• Availability of adequate utilities (i.e., power,
  water, etc.) and ancillary system facilities
  (i.e., waste treatment and disposal, etc.)
• Maximum allowable emissions (air regulations)
• Aesthetic considerations
• Contribution of air pollution control system to
  wastewater and solid waste
• Contribution of air pollution control system to
  plant noise levels

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• FACTORS
• Economic
• Capital cost (equipment, installation,
  engineering, etc.)
• Operating cost (utilities, maintenance, etc.)
• Expected equipment lifetime and salvage value

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• FACTORS
• Engineering
• Contaminant characteristics (i.e., physical and
  chemical properties, concentration, particulate
  shape and size)
• Gas stream characteristics (i.e., volume flow
  rate, temperature, pressure, humidity,
  composition, viscosity, density, reactivity,
  combustibility, corrosivity, toxicity, etc.)
• Design and performance characteristics of the
  particular control system(i.e., size and weight,
  fractional efficiency curves, etc)

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AIR POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• SELECTING TECHNOLOGY
• Final choice in equipment selection is usually
  dictated by that equipment capable of achieving
  compliance with regulatory codes at the lowest
  uniform annual cost (amortized capital investment
  plus operation and maintenance costs).
• In order to compare specific control equipment
  alternatives, knowledge of the particular
  application and site is essentials.
• A preliminary screening, however, may be
  performed by reviewing the advantages and
  disadvantages of each type of air pollution
  control equipment.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies
3. WASTEWATER CONTROL
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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• CONTENTS
• Background
• Wastewater treatment principles
• Wastewater treatment plants
• Primary treatment
• Secondary treatment
• Tertiary treatment

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• BACKGROUND
• Basic objective of the field of water quality
  engineering is the determination of the
  environmental controls that must be instituted to
  achieve a specific environmental quality
  objective
• Role of the water quality engineer and scientist
  is to analyze water quality problems by dividing
  the problem into its principal components
• Inputs - discharge of residue into the
  environment from man' s and nature's activities.
• Reactions and physical transport - chemical and
  biological transformations and water movement
  that result in different levels of water quality
  at different locations in time in the aquatic
  ecosystem.
• Output - the resulting concentration of a
  substance, at a particular location in the water
  body during a particular time of the year or day

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• BACKGROUND
• There are several points at which the water
  quality in a system can be controlled.
• The initial concentration at the outfall can be
  controlled by
• Reducing the effluent concentration of the waste
  input
• Reducing the upstream concentration and effluent
  volume
• Increasing the upstream flow by low flow
  augmentation
• The choice of the mix of the above controls
  involves issues of
• The costs of the controls - Iocally, regionally,
  and nationally.
• The expected benefits of water quality in water
  use.
• The technological bounds (e.g., available storage
  for low flow augmentation) on the controls.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• WASTEWATER TREATMENT PRINCIPLES
• If untreated wastewater is allowed to accumulate,
  the decomposition of the organic materials it
  contains can lead to the production of offensive
  odors and gases.
• Untreated wastewater contains numerous pathogenic
  microorganisms, released from the human
  intestinal system.
• It contains nutrients which can stimulate the
  growth of aquatic life, and it may also contain
  toxic compounds.
• Immediate removal from its sources, followed by
  treatment and disposal are the priorities when
  managing wastewater.

Removal Treatment Disposal
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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANT
• Purpose of any ww treatment plant is to convert
  the components in raw wastewater, with its
  inherent characteristics, into a relatively
  harmless final effluent for discharge to a
  receiving body of water and to safely dispose of
  the solids (sludge) produced in the process.
• Wastewater treatment plant must satisfy these
  conditions
• requirements for aesthetics and minimization of
  obnoxious odors at treatment and disposal
• to prevent contamination of water supplies from
  physical, chemical, and biological agents
• to prevent destruction of fish, shellfish, and
  other aquatic life
• to protect against the spread of disease from
  crops grown on sewage irrigation or sludge
  disposal
• to encourage other beneficial uses of effluent.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• WASTEWATER TREATMENT PLANTS
• Wastewater treatment plants utilize a number of
  individual or unit operations and processes to
  achieve the desired degree of treatment.
• Collective treatment schematic is called a flow
  scheme, a flow diagram, a flow sheet, a process
  train, or a flow schematic.
• Unit operations and processes are grouped
  together to provide what is known as primary,
  secondary, and tertiary (or advanced) treatment.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• PRIMARY TREATMENT
• Treatment methods in which the application of
  physical forces predominate are known as physical
  unit operations.
• These were the first methods to be used for
  wastewater treatment.
• Screening, mixing, flocculation, sedimentation,
  flotation, and filtration are typical unit
  operations for primary treatment processes.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• PRIMARY TREATMENT
• Clarification (Sedimentation)
• Process of separating the settleable solids from
  the liquid
• Some treatment systems employing two or more
  stages of treatment and clarification, the terms
  primary, secondary, and final clarification are
  used.
• The actual physical sizing of the clarifier
  (depth, surface area, inlet structure, etc.) is
  highly dependent upon the quantity and
  composition of the flow.
• Clarification units can be either circular or
  rectangular and are normally designed to operate
  on a continuous flow-through basis
• circular units are generally called clarifiers,
• whereas rectangular units are commonly referred
  to as sedimentation tanks.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• PRIMARY TREATMENT
• Flotation
• Separates these particles by their density by the
  introduction of air into the system.
• Fine bubbles adhere to, or are absorbed by, the
  solids, which are then lifted to the surface.
• Flotation separator tanks can be either
  rectangular or circular in shape and constructed
  of either concrete or steel
• It is an appropriate technology for treating
  suspended solids and oil and grease in industrial
  waters. Process will achieve 40-65 suspended
  solids removal and 60 of oil and grease removal.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• PRIMARY TREATMENT
• Oil-Water separation
• In practically all manufacturing industries, oil
  and grease can be found in a plant's wastewater
• The configuration of the separator is that of a
  flow-through tank. The basic principle by which
  oil-water separators work is the differential
  between the specific gravities of water and the
  oils to be removed.
• Major advantage of oil-water separators is their
  ability to treat wastewater which is heavily
  laden with oil compounds.
• They represent a very simple treatment operation
  which minimizes personnel requirements its
  operating costs are minimized.
• It results in a more "pure" oil which can make
  recycling
• much easier.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• SECONDARY TREATMENT
• Treatment methods in which the removal or
  conversion of contaminants is brought about by
  the addition of chemicals or by other chemical
  reactions are known as chemical unit processes.
• Precipitation, gas transfer, adsorption, and
  disinfections are the most common examples used
  in secondary wastewater treatment.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• SECONDARY TREATMENT
• Coagulation - precipitation
• Involves two discrete steps.
• Rapid mixing is employed to ensure that the
  chemicals are thoroughly dispersed
• Next, the wastewater undergoes flocculation which
  provides for particle contact, so that the
  particles can agglomerate to a size large enough
  for removal.
• Finally precipitation occurs, that is really the
  same as settling.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• SECONDARY TREATMENT
• Coagulation-precipitation is capable of removing
  from industrial wastewater pollutants such as
  BOD, COD, and TSS. It can remove additional
  pollutants such as phosphorus, nitrogen
  compounds, and metals. This technology is
  attractive to industry because a high degree of
  classification and toxic pollutants removal can
  be combined in one treatment process.
• Neutralization
• Involves adding an acid or a base to a wastewater
  to offset or neutralize the effects of its
  counterpart in the wastewater flow, namely,
  adding acids to alkaline wastewaters and bases to
  acidic wastewaters.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• SECONDARY TREATMENT
• The most important considerations in
  neutralization treatment are the wastewater
  constituents so that the proper neutralizing
  chemicals are used, and proper monitoring to
  ensure that the required quantities of these
  chemicals are used and that the effluent is in
  fact neutralized.
• For acid waste streams, lime, soda ash, and
  caustic soda are the most common base chemicals
  used
• In alkaline waste streams, sulfuric,
  hydrochloric, and nitric acid are generally used
  for neutralization

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• TERTIARY TREATMENT
• Treatment methods in which the removal of
  contaminants is brought about by biological
  activity are known as biological unit processes.
• Biological treatment is used primarily to remove
  the biodegradable organic substances (colloidal
  or dissolved) in wastewater.
• Basically these substances are converted into
  gases that can escape to the atmosphere or into
  biological cell tissue that can be removed by
  settling.
• Designed to remove those constituents that are
  not adequately removed in the secondary treatment
  plants, such as N, P, and other soluble organic
  and inorganic compounds.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• TERTIARY TREATMENT
• Many of these constituents must be removed to
  meet stringent water quality standards and to
  allow reuse of the effluent for municipal,
  industrial, irrigation, recreation, and other
  water needs.
• The most commonly used advanced wastewater
  treatment processes are among other
• Chemical precipitation of phosphorus,
• Nitrification and Denitrification,
• Ammonia stripping,
• Breakpoint chlorination,
• Filtration,
• Carbon adsorption,
• Ion exchange

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• TERTIARY TREATMENT
• Aerobic Suspended Growth Processes
• (Activated Sludge) 
• Process in which the biological growth products
  (microorganisms) are kept in suspension in a
  liquid medium consisting of entrapped and
  suspended colloidal and dissolved organic and
  inorganic materials.
• It uses metabolic reactions of the microorganisms
  to attain an acceptable effluent quality by
  removing these substances exerting an oxygen
  demand.
• In the suspended growth processes, wastewater
  enters a reactor basin, concretesteel-earthen
  tank(s) where microorganisms are brought into
  contact with the organic components of the
  wastewater by some type of mixing device.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• TERTIARY TREATMENT
• Aerobic Lagoons (Stabilization Ponds)
• Large, shallow earthen basins that are used for
  wastewater treatment by utilizing natural
  processes involving both algae and bacteria. The
  objective is microbial conversion of organic
  wastes into algae. Aerobic conditions prevail
  throughout the process.
• In aerobic photosynthesis, the oxygen produced by
  the algae through the process of photosynthesis
  is used by the bacteria in the biochemical
  oxidation and degradation of organic waste.
  Carbon dioxide, ammonia, phosphate, and other
  nutrients released in the biochemical oxidation
  reactions are, in turn, used by the algae,
  forming a cyclic-symbiotic relationship.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• TERTIARY TREATMENT
• Aerobic lagoons are used for treatment of weak
  industrial wastewater containing negligible
  amounts of toxic and for non-biodegradable
  substances.
• Anaerobic Lagoon
• Earthen ponds built with a small surface area and
  a deep liquid depth of 3-7 m. They are anaerobic
  throughout their depth, except for an extremely
  shallow surface zone.
• Raw wastewater enters near the bottom of the
  lagoon (often at the center) and mixes with the
  active microbial mass in the sludge blanket.

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WASTEWATER CONTROL Environment technologies

• TERTIARY TREATMENT
• Discharge is located near one of the sides and
  submerged below the liquid surface. Excess
  undigested grease floats to the top. Excess
  sludge is washed out with the effluent.
• Anaerobic lagoons are effective prior to aerobic
  treatment of high-strength organic wastewater
  that also contains a high concentration of
  solids. BOD removal efficiencies of up to 85 are
  possible.

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SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies
4. SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL
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SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• CONTENTS
• Background
• Techniques
• Soil Removal
• In-situ treatment

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SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• BACKGROUND
• Contaminated soils is one of the environmental
  problems historically ignored by humans. Lately,
  its relation with human health safety and
  ecological impacts was discovered.
•  
• Most widely used techniques applied to polluted
  soils are removal and placement in a more secure
  landfill environment.

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SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• BACKGROUND
• Although this simply moves contaminated soil from
  one place to another, it can be of significant
  benefit due to improvements in landfill design.
• Often early landfills were sited in wetlands or
  adjacent to rivers and encouraged contaminant
  migration and ultimately exposure to at-risk
  populations.

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SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• BACKGROUND
• Wastes could be stabilised after removal and
  before or during placement to further reduce
  mobility after placement.
•  
• Stabilisation might include solidification with
  concrete or a similar material or direct chemical
  treatment of certain contaminants.
•  
• Incineration or thermal treatment of the
  contaminated soil could be used to eliminate
  organic contaminants susceptible to destruction
  or removal by these means.

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SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• BACKGROUND
• A variety of other processes have been employed
  to treat contaminated soils once excavated and
  removed from a site. Included among these are
  biological degradation in dedicated bioreactors
  and sophisticated extraction schemes, for
  example, supercritical extraction, followed by
  the application of destruction processes to the
  effluent.
•   An alternative to removal options of
  remediating soil is the use of in situ means that
  do not require soil removal. These are generally
  the options of choice if they can be demonstrated
  effective at reducing the volume, toxicity, or
  exposure to the wastes.

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SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• The principle option to decontaminate soils are
• Removal options for soil remediation
• In situ soil remediation processes

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SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• Removal options for soil remediation
• These techniques are techniques that consists in
  to take the contaminated soil and apply a method
  to decontaminate. This techniques are
  Incineration, landfilling, stabilization and
  solidification, and ex situ bioremediation.
• The methods are the same that are defined in the
  waste manager chapter.

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SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• In situ soil remediation processes
• These techniques consist in treat the soil in the
  same land or place where is contaminated. The
  techniques or methods are Pump and treat
  extraction of contaminated groundwater,
  enhancement of pump and treat processes, vacuum
  extraction in the unsaturated zone and in situ
  bioremediation of soils.
• Pump and treat extraction of contaminated
  groundwater is the technique that remove the
  contaminated groundwater or separate contaminated
  phases via withdrawal wells for above-ground
  treatment.

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SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• Enhancement of pump and treat processes are
  methods of remediation of soils. These methods
  are of limited usefulness when significant
  quantities of NAPLs exist.
• Due to the low solubility of most soil
  contaminants, large volumes of water are required
  to remove contaminants present in a separate
  phase even if it were possible to maintain the
  water at saturation.

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SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• Vacuum extraction in the unsaturated zone is a
  process that is similar conceptually to pump and
  treat of groundwater is soil vacuum extraction
  (SVE) in the water-unsaturated zone.
• A vacuum is applied to the unsaturated zone by
  placing a vacuum pump on a well screened in the
  unsaturated zone. This pulls vapours through the
  soil, removing any volatile components that have
  volatilised in the subsurface

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SOIL POLLUTION CONTROL Environment technologies

• TECHNIQUES
• In situ bioremediation of soils is perhaps the
  most desirable of all treatment processes is in
  situ biodegradation to render the soil harmless
  and to naturally recycle the contaminants.
• There are a number of compounds that undergo
  detoxification by microbial processes at rates
  that are sufficient to justify natural recovery
  of contaminated soils.

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NOISE CONTROL Environment technologies
5. NOISE CONTROL
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NOISE CONTROL Environment technologies

• CONTENTS
• Background
• Noise control
• Guidelines
• Control techniques
• Results
• Noise control for new projects

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NOISE CONTROL Environment technologies

• BACKGROUND
• Noise pollution is traditionally not placed among
  the top environmental problems facing the
  society however, it is one of the more
  frequently encountered sources
• Sources of noise pollution are extremely diverse
  and are constantly increasing as more and more
  noise-generating products become available to
  consumers.
• An estimated 6 citizens are exposed to noise
  that poses a threat to their hearing.
• In today's mechanized world it is virtually
  impossible for an active person to avoid exposure
  to potentially harmful sound levels.

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NOISE CONTROL Environment technologies

• NOISE CONTROL
• General control measures include alteration of
  machines and equipment to gather up-dated
  machinery regarding noise prevention.
• Noise can be tackled through

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NOISE CONTROL Environment technologies

• NOISE CONTROL
• It is often possible to reduce noise radiation
  from production equipment, material handling, and
  work in progress for example by damping sound
  radiating panels, quietening power sources and
  transmissions, and reducing noise from compressed
  air exhausts.
• Sometimes machine alterations or enclosures do
  not give sufficiently good results, and if it is
  the work process itself which causes intense
  noise it can be difficult to predict the results
  of noise control measures.
• In such cases effort might be better aimed at
  changing the working methods and processes
  themselves.

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NOISE CONTROL Environment technologies

• NOISE CONTROL
• Changing the method of work is the only way to
  get to grips with noise generation it requires
  that production equipment or part of it must be
  replaced and one must be aware of the
  availability of less noisy equipment for both
  production and material handling.
• Requires cooperation between the buyer, supplier,
  designer, and safety organization.

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NOISE CONTROL Environment technologies

• NOISE CONTROL
• Prevent propagation to avoid noise pollution can
  result economically more efficient than
  corrective measures.  
• The noise in a workshop is often dominated by a
  relatively small number of intense noise
  sources.Try to enclose all noise sources points
  or keep them away from workers in the same room.
• By setting up sound absorbing ceiling and wall
  panels, noise levels within the room far from the
  noise sources can be reduced.
• Alteration and replacement of production
  equipment may mean that personnel monitoring this
  machinery do not need to be in its vicinity if
  monitoring can be carried out in a sound
  insulated control room.

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NOISE CONTROL Environment technologies

• NOISE GUIDELINES
• For all noise control efforts a target noise
  level must be set.
• A highest level must
• be defined for each
• place of equipment or room
• Guideline noise levels
• for specific locations

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NOISE CONTROL Environment technologies

• NOISE CONTROL TIPS
• Machinery have to be adapted to new normative,
  relevant materials of the machines are key to
  ensure appropriate noise levels.
• Existing equipment must be attenuated without
  complicated operations.
• Handling material can be done by consider
  choosing conveyor belts and controlling the speed
  of conveyor belt transports.
• Enclosure of machines can reduce noise levels at
  its source very effectively.
• Attenuation by using absorbent materials is one
  of the key techniques to ensure that rooms and
  workshops do not communicate noise pollution to
  each other. To ensure so, best practices are
  providing sound isolated rooms.

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NOISE CONTROL Environment technologies

• RESULTS for NOISE CONTROL
• Mounting an absorbent roof or ceiling in a room
  will in general give a noise reduction of between
  3 and 5 dB. Exceptionally, up to 10 dB can be
  obtained.
• Damping of vibration of small production machines
  by applying damping material can give between 3
  and 10 dB attenuation.
• Factory-made screens can reduce noise from
  between 5 and 15 dB.
• Leakage where pipes pass through walls as well as
  acoustic leaks between walls, screens or
  enclosures, can produce large variations in the
  attenuation achieved. It is therefore important
  to seal air gaps carefully.

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NOISE CONTROL Environment technologies

• NOISE CONTROL at NEW PROJECTS
• Noise control of new projects can be difficult to
  manage and implement, but very cost-effective at
  the long term.
• Implementing noise reduction measures at rooms,
  planning the building and purchase accurate
  machinery are necessary steps to execute a
  program for noise control.
• Noise abatement measures at the municipality
  level can reduce the background noise and
  establish an adequate framework to develop a
  detailed building code regarding noise reduction

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies
6. MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES
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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• CONTENTS
• Background
• Selecting methodology
• Water sampling
• Groundwater sampling
• Soil sampling
• Air sampling
• Noise sampling
• Sampling packment and shipment
• Databases and scientific journals

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• BACKGROUND
• In many instances, we are unaware that a problem
  exists until harm has been done. Damage may be in
  the form of disease to the surrounding population
  or destruction of the surrounding ecosystem.
  Monitoring problem areas or potential problem
  areas can help to limit future damage.
• Before beginning any sampling program, background
  research must be conducted to determine
• proper equipment for both sampling and personal
  protection,
• proper sampling methodology and analytical
  methods, and
• appropriate health and safety practices to be
  employed. This is especially important when
  handling materials which may be hazardous or
  radioactive.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• SELECTING METHODOLOGY
• Methods used to obtain data regarding
  contamination of soil, air, and water , have to
  take into account the following factors
• The program objective (documenting exposures.
  determining regulatory compliance
• The type of material to be sampled (soil,
  vegetation, air, water, sludge, etc.).
• The physical and chemical properties of the
  contaminant.
• Other contaminants that affect the results.
• Regulatory requirements and safety
• Costs
• Reliability.
• Scale of sample area (small-scale site related to
  individual persons versus a large-scale site).
• Short- versus long-term sampling requirement

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• SAMPLING
• Several factors must be accomplished to carry on
  an adequate sampling practice
• samples must represent the conditions existing at
  the point taken.
• samples must be of sufficient volume and must be
  taken frequently enough to permit reproducibility
  of testing requisite for the desired objective,
  as conditioned by the method of analysis to be
  employed.
• the samples must be collected, packed, shipped,
  and manipulated prior to analysis in a manner
  that safeguards against change in the particular
  constituents or properties to be examined.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• WATER SAMPLING
• Water sampling methodologies include
• Grab sample
• Composite sample
• Continuous flowing sample
• Collection of a grab sample of water at a
  specific site representing conditions only at the
  time of sampling. Applicable to sampling water
  from sources such as wells, rivers, streams,
  lakes and oceans for chemical, physical,
  bacteriological, or radiological analysis
• Collection of a composite sample at a specific
  site, portions of which are collected at varied
  time intervals. Alternatively, the composite may
  consist of portions collected at various sites or
  may consist of a combination of both site and
  time variables.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• WATER SAMPLING
• Continuous flowing sample, from one or more
  sampling sites, suitable for on-stream analysers.
  Applicable to sampling water from sources such as
  wells, rivers, streams, lakes, oceans, and
  reservoirs on a continual basis for chemical,
  physical, or radiological analyses
• Apparatus used are
• Delivery valve or pump.
• Piping system.
• Flow regulation system
• Waste disposal system.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• GROUNDWATER MONITORING
• It is developed by delineating contamination
  plumes, and establishing the integrity of
  hazardous material management facilities.
• Goal in sampling groundwater monitoring wells is
  to obtain samples that are truly representative
  of the aquifer or groundwater in question.
• Water that stands within a monitoring well for a
  long period of time may become unrepresentative
  of formation water because chemical or
  biochemical change may cause water-quality
  alterations and even if it is unchanged from the
  time it entered the well, the stored water may
  not be representative of formation water at the
  time of sampling.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• SOIL SAMPLING
• Two portions of the soil that are important to
  the environmental scientist
• 0-15 cm layer
• Upper meter
• The surface layer (0-15 cm) reflects the
  deposition of airborne pollutants, especially
  those recently deposited pollutants. Pollutants
  that have been deposited by liquid spills or by
  long-term deposition of water-soluble materials
  may be found at depths ranging up to several
  meters. Plumes emanating from hazardous waste
  dumps or from leaking storage tanks may be found
  at considerable depths.
• The methods of sampling each of these are
  slightly different, but all make use of one of
  two basic techniques.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• SOIL SAMPLING DEVICES
• Samples can be collected with some form of core
  sampling or auger device, or they may be
  collected by use of excavations or trenches. In
  the latter case, the samples are cut from the
  soil mass with spades or short punches.
• Techniques that are utilized should be closely
  coordinated with the analytical laboratory in
  order to meet the specific requirements of the
  analytical methods used.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• SURFACE SOIL SAMPLING
• Use of a punch or thin-walled steel tube that is
  15-20 cm long to extract short cores from the
  soil. Tube is driven into the soil with a wooden
  mallet the core and the robe are extracted and
  the soil is pushed out of the tube into a
  stainless steel mixing bowl.
• Using a seamless steel ring, approximately 15-30
  cm in diameter, the ring is driven into the soil
  to a depth of 15-20 cm. The ring is extracted as
  a soil-ring unit, and the soil is removed for
  analysis.
• Perhaps the most undesirable sample collection
  device is the shovel or scoop. Often used in
  agriculture, but where samples are being taken
  for chemical pollutants, the inconsistencies are
  to be great.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• SHALLOW SURFACE SAMPLING
• Sampling pollutants that have moved into the
  lower soil horizons requires the use of a device
  that will extract a longer core than can be
  obtained with the short probes or punches.
• Three basic methods are used for sampling these
  deeper soils
• Soil probes or soil augers
• Power-driven corers
• Trenching
• Samples should be collected at least every 1.5 m
  or in each distinct stratum. Additional samples
  should be collected where sand lenses or thin
  silt and sand lovers appear in the profile.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• AIR SAMPLING
• Investigations of atmospheric contaminants
  involve the study of a heterogeneous mass under
  uncontrolled conditions. Interpretation of the
  data derived from the air-sampling program must
  often be based on the statistical theory of
  probability.
• Extreme care must be observed to obtain
  measurements over a sufficient length of time to
  obtain results that may be considered
  representative.
• Choice of sampling techniques and measurement
  methodology, the characteristics of the sites,
  the number of sampling stations, and the amount
  of data collected all depend on the objectives of
  the monitoring program

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies
AIR SAMPLING OBJECTIVES
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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• AIR SAMPLING FACTORS
• The topography, demography, and micrometeorology
  of the area, as well as the contaminant measured,
  must be considered in determining the number of
  monitoring stations required in the area.
• A map of the locations of the sampling stations
  is desirable in describing the sampling station.
• Multiple samplers or monitors operating
  simultaneously upwind and downwind from the
  source are often very valuable and efficient.
• Choice of procedure for the air sampling is
  dependent on the contaminant to be measured.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• AIR SAMPLING GUIDELINES
• The height of the inlet to the sampling duct
  should normally be from 2.5 to 5 m above ground
  whenever possible.
• Height of the inlet above the sampling station
  structure or vegetation adjacent to the station
  should be greater than 1 m.
• Sampling should preferably be through a vertical
  inlet with an inverted cone over the opening.
• For a horizontal inlet, there should be a minimum
  of 2 m from the face of the structure.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• AIR SAMPLING GUIDELINES
• For access to representative ambient air in the
  area sampled, the elevation angle from the inlet
  to the top of nearby buildings should be less
  than 30.
• To be representative of the area in which a large
  segment of the population is exposed to
  contaminants emitted by automobiles, the inlet
  should be at a distance greater than 15 m from
  the nearest high-volume traffic artery.
• Photochemical oxidants or ozone samplers should
  be located at distances greater than 50 m from
  high-volume-traffic locations.
• Particulate matter samplers should be sited at
  locations that are greater than 200 m from
  unpaved streets or roads.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• NOISE SAMPLING
• To avoid noise pollution, it is very relevant to
  have an appropriate estimation of noise level at
  the place of work through modern and accurate
  techniques and measuring tools.
• Background noise can be very relevant at
  factories located around main highways, close to
  the airports.
• Sound-level meter is best used attached to the
  person exposed.
• Noise sampling has to take into account internal
  and external measures to the workplace

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• SAMPLES PACKMENT and SHIPMENT
• Laboratory for analysing a sample should be
  consulted regarding packaging requirements before
  the initiation of a sampling program. Samples
  must be packaged for shipment in compliance with
  current legislation and commercial carrier
  regulations.
• Traffic reports, dioxin shipment records, packing
  lists, chain-of-custody records, and any other
  shipping/sample documentation accompanying the
  shipment must be enclosed to a waterproof plastic
  bag and taped to the underside of the shipping
  cooler lid.
• Coolers must be sealed with custody seals.
• Shipping coolers must have clearly visible return
  address labels on the outside. Inside the cooler,
  sample containers must be enclosed in clear
  plastic bags through which sample tags and labels
  are visible.

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• SAMPLES PACKMENT and SHIPMENT
• Samples for organics analysis must be shipped
  urgently.
• Each sample must be properly documented to ensure
  timely, correct, and complete analysis for all
  parameters requested, and, most importantly, to
  support use of sample data in potential
  enforcement actions concerning a site.
• Documentation system provides the means to
  individually identify, crack, and monitor each
  sample from the point of collection through final
  data reporting
• To render sample data valid for enforcement uses,
  individual samples must be traceable continuously
  from the time of collection until the time of
  introduction as evidence during litigation. One
  mechanism utilized is the use of the "sample
  tag."

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MONITORING TECHNOLOGIES Environment technologies

• SAMPLES PACKMENT and SHIPMENT
• Sampling information recorded on an sample tag
  includes
• Sample number
• Station number
• Date.
• Time
• Station location
• Samplers
• Tag number
• Lab sample number

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• DATABASES and JOURNALS
• Environmental databases and scientific journals
  shall complement information provided in this
  module when dealing with application of
  environmental technologies.
• Main European environmental database is linked to
  EEAs website, classified by theme and sector.
  SERIS presents national reports on the state of
  the environment
• Several scientific journals can be browsed in
  internet to assess a specific technology suitable
  for your organization.