MAKING HISTORY

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MAKING HISTORY
Critical Analysis
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Session Outline

• Introduction
• Analysing reasoning
• Exercise One read, highlight and summarise
• Recognising assumptions
• Exercise Two summarise and compare extracts
• Evaluating evidence
• Summary

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Session Objectives
By the end of this workshop we hope you will be
able to

• reflect critically on secondary texts as an
  intermediate stage between reading/note taking,
  and essay planning/writing
• develop an awareness of the relationship between
  primary evidence and argument in historical
  writing
• identify and compare the strengths and
  weaknesses of arguments used by historians.

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Building an understanding of a new topic
Critical Analysis
?
Knowledge Vacuum
? COMPARE approaches, use of evidence, conclusions
? ESTABLISH topic parameters, chronological
spatial signposts
specific textbooks
course lectures
monographs/ journal articles
general textbook
Effective Note Taking
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Key Stages in Writing an Essay
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Analysing Reasoning

• Reasoning is the process of drawing conclusions
  from facts or evidence. This is an everyday skill
  that can be developed through practice. The
  reasoning skills used in an essay include

• giving reasons for your own opinions and
  conclusions
• analysing other peoples reasoning
• recognising and assessing the implications of
  other peoples reasons.

Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Analysing Reasoning

• Reasoning within an argument can include

• offering reasons or evidence to persuade others
  to accept the truth of a statement
• assessing and evaluating an others argument
• drawing conclusions from stated reasons

Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Analysing Reasoning
Indicator words used in arguments
include therefore so hence
thus must cannot should These words
are used to show that conclusions are being
drawn.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Analysing Reasoning
Reasons in an argument can be structured in a
number of ways

• one reason and a conclusion

Edward is thinner. He has probably been dieting.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
10
Analysing Reasoning
Reasons in an argument can be structured in a
number of ways

• one reason and a conclusion

Edward is thinner. He has probably been dieting.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
11
Analysing Reasoning

• two or more reasons taken together to support a
  conclusion

People who diet lose weight. Edward hasnt lost
weight. Edward cannot have been dieting.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
12
Analysing Reasoning

• two or more reasons taken together to support a
  conclusion

People who diet lose weight. Edward hasnt lost
weight. Edward cannot have been dieting.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
13
Analysing Reasoning

• two or more reasons independently supporting a
  conclusion

Cigarette advertising should be banned because it
encourages young people to start smoking. Even if
it had no such influence on young people it
should be banned because it gives smokers the
impression that their habit is socially
acceptable.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
14
Analysing Reasoning

• two or more reasons independently supporting a
  conclusion

Cigarette advertising should be banned because it
encourages young people to start smoking. Even if
it had no such influence on young people it
should be banned because it gives smokers the
impression that their habit is socially
acceptable.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
15
Analysing Reasoning

• one or more reasons supporting an intermediate
  conclusion, used on its own or with other reasons
  to support a main conclusion

A majority of prospective parents would prefer to
have sons rather than daughters. If people are
allowed to choose the sex of their child, it is
likely that there will eventually be many more
males than females in the population. A majority
of males in the population is likely to produce
serious social problems. Therefore, the use of
techniques which enable parents to choose the sex
of their child should be discouraged.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
16
Analysing Reasoning

• one or more reasons supporting an intermediate
  conclusion, used on its own or with other reasons
  to support a main conclusion

A majority of prospective parents would prefer to
have sons rather than daughters. If people are
allowed to choose the sex of their child, it is
likely that there will eventually be many more
males than females in the population. A majority
of males in the population is likely to produce
serious social problems. Therefore, the use of
techniques which enable parents to choose the sex
of their child should be discouraged.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
17
Analysing Reasoning

• one or more reasons supporting an intermediate
  conclusion, used on its own or with other reasons
  to support a main conclusion

A majority of prospective parents would prefer to
have sons rather than daughters. If people are
allowed to choose the sex of their child, it is
likely that there will eventually be many more
males than females in the population. A majority
of males in the population is likely to produce
serious social problems. Therefore, the use of
techniques which enable parents to choose the sex
of their child should be discouraged.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Exercise One

• Read the extract from T.S. Ashton, The Industrial
  Revolution 17601830 and highlight key words and
  phrases which are central to understanding the
  meaning of the text.
• Summarise the argument and conclusion(s) of the
  text USING YOUR OWN WORDS.
• Identify the evidence used to develop and support
  the argument.

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Identifying assumptions

• In an argument an assumption is something that
  has been taken for granted and is implicit
  within an argument. The fact that it is unstated
  separates it from a reason.
• Most arguments rely on some shared background
  information e.g. general knowledge which gives
  support to reasons being presented. These
  assumptions are generally not contentious and do
  not need to be made explicit.
• Some assumptions however may be dubious and we
  may wish to identify them in order to assess the
  validity of the argument.

Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Identifying assumptions
An assumption may underline a reason given in
support of a conclusion
One third of the population smokes. Everyone must
know that smoking causes lung cancer and heart
disease. Therefore, knowing the danger of smoking
is not sufficient to stop people from smoking.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Identifying assumptions
An assumption may underline a reason given in
support of a conclusion
One third of the population smokes. Everyone must
know that smoking causes lung cancer and heart
disease. Therefore, knowing the danger of smoking
is not sufficient to stop people from smoking.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Identifying assumptions
An assumption may also be a missing link in a
piece of reasoning
If cigarette advertising were banned, cigarette
manufacturers would save money they would
otherwise have spent on advertising. Thus, in
order to compete with each other, they would
reduce the price of cigarettes. So, banning
cigarette advertising would be likely to lead to
an increase in smoking.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Identifying assumptions
An assumption may also be a missing link in a
piece of reasoning
If cigarette advertising were banned, cigarette
manufacturers would save money they would
otherwise have spent on advertising. Thus, in
order to compete with each other, they would
reduce the price of cigarettes. So, banning
cigarette advertising would be likely to lead to
an increase in smoking.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Exercise Two

• Read the second extract.
• Highlight key words and phrases which are central
  to understanding the meaning of the text.
• Briefly summarise the argument.
• Compare the arguments and conclusions in the two
  extracts.

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Summary of the argument in extract 2
While factory owners amassed considerable wealth
the industrial revolution caused a reduction in
the standard of living for many of the working
classes. This was generally the result of a fall
in wages.
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Key points for comparison
Contrasting arguments
Ashton supports the view that the industrial
revolution was accompanied by an improved
standard of living for the masses, Toynbee
disputes this.
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Evaluating evidence
Points to consider include

• is the evidence authoritative?
• is the evidence relevant to the conclusion?
• some does not imply all
• is there insufficient evidence?
• correlation is not cause.

Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
28
Evaluating evidence
Is the evidence relevant to the conclusion?
Introducing an extra written test for learner
drivers in the UK will do nothing to reduce the
high accident rate amongst drivers aged 17 to 21,
because it will not improve their driving skills.
In Portugal, every aspiring driver has to have
five weeks theoretical instruction and a stiff
examination before he or she is legally entitled
to touch the wheel, but this does not result in a
low accident rate amongst new drivers. The test
is regarded by most as a bureaucratic hurdle to
be jumped and forgotten about as soon as
possible. All it indicates is that the candidate
can read and write. It has no bearing on his or
her ability to drive.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Evaluating evidence
Is the evidence relevant to the conclusion?
Introducing an extra written test for learner
drivers in the UK will do nothing to reduce the
high accident rate amongst drivers aged 17 to 21,
because it will not improve their driving skills.
In Portugal, every aspiring driver has to have
five weeks theoretical instruction and a stiff
examination before he or she is legally entitled
to touch the wheel, but this does not result in a
low accident rate amongst new drivers. The test
is regarded by most as a bureaucratic hurdle to
be jumped and forgotten about as soon as
possible. All it indicates is that the candidate
can read and write. It has no bearing on his or
her ability to drive.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Evaluating evidence
Some does not imply all
Some people say that the depiction of violence on
television has no effect on viewers behaviour.
However, if what was shown on television did not
affect behaviour, television advertising would
never influence viewers to buy certain products.
We know that it does. It therefore cannot be true
that television violence does not affect
behaviour.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Evaluating evidence
Some does not imply all
Some people say that the depiction of violence on
television has no effect on viewers behaviour.
However, if what was shown on television did not
affect behaviour, television advertising would
never influence viewers to buy certain products.
We know that it does. It therefore cannot be true
that television violence does not affect
behaviour.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Evaluating evidence
Insufficient evidence
If people became healthier as the affluence of
the country increased, we would expect the
population to be healthier now than it was thirty
years ago. Over the past thirty years however,
new illnesses, such as chronic fatigue syndrome,
have appeared, and we have become more vulnerable
to diseases such as heart disease, strokes and
cancer. So the increased wealth of the country
has not produced an improvement in the health of
the population.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
33
Evaluating evidence
Insufficient evidence
If people became healthier as the affluence of
the country increased, we would expect the
population to be healthier now than it was thirty
years ago. Over the past thirty years however,
new illnesses, such as chronic fatigue syndrome,
have appeared, and we have become more vulnerable
to diseases such as heart disease, strokes and
cancer. So the increased wealth of the country
has not produced an improvement in the health of
the population.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
34
Evaluating evidence
Correlation is not cause
There have been improvements in the health of the
population over the past thirty years, a period
during which there has been an increase in the
affluence of the country. Therefore, the
increased affluence of the country has produced
the improvement in the health of the population.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Evaluating evidence
Correlation is not cause
There have been improvements in the health of the
population over the past thirty years, a period
during which there has been an increase in the
affluence of the country. Therefore, the
increased affluence of the country has produced
the improvement in the health of the population.
Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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Key points for comparison
Use of evidence
Toynbee uses general evidence and appeals to the
assumed knowledge of the audience rather than to
the work of named historians. Ashton is more
circumspect and provides more detailed evidence.
He also acknowledges an alternative
interpretation and counters this, pointing to the
balance of evidence so that exceptions to the
general pattern of improvement can be
accommodated within his argument.
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Features of an effective argument
The following points can be used to identify an
effective argument

• What is the passage trying to get the reader to
  accept or believe?
• What reasons or evidence is being used to
  persuade the reader?
• Are there any unstated assumptions?
• Assess the reliability of any authorities on whom
  the evidence depends.

Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
38
Features of an effective argument

• Is there any additional evidence which
  strengthens or weakens the conclusion?
• Assess the plausibility of any explanations that
  have been given.
• Assess the appropriateness of any comparisons
  that have been used.
• Do any of the reasons given embody a general
  principle? If so evaluate it.
• Is the conclusion well supporting by the
  reasoning?
• Can a conclusion other than the one given be
  drawn from the reasons or evidence presented?

Adapted from Thomson, A. (1996) Critical
Reasoning A Practical Introduction. Routledge,
London.
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MAKING HISTORY
Critical Analysis