How can we maximize the effectiveness of Smaller Classes

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How can we maximize the effectiveness of Smaller
Classes?

• Maurice Galton
• Faculty of Education, University of Cambridge UK
• Presentation Seminar Hong Kong
  November 2004

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A SCIENCE ACTIVITY LIGHT DARK

• AIMS

• Basic Children can name a number of light
  sources including the sun, recognise they cant
  see in the dark and know its dangerous to look
  at the sun directly
• Standard Children can compare some light sources
• Extension Children can explain why they cannot
  see shiny objects in the dark because they are
  not light sources

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Plan a sequence of lessons incorporating the
teaching for understanding indicators within a
framework

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(No Transcript)
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SOME RECENT IDEAS ABOUT SMALLER CLASSES
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John Hattie (1999)

• Little evidence that instructional methods change
  when class size is reduced. Effects mostly down
  to increased time on task but only in classes lt
  15
• Better Effect Size can be achieved by Direct
  Instruction (0.82) Feedback (0.65) Improving
  Disposition to learn (0.61) Peer tutoring (0.56)
  more questions (0.42)
• (An effect size of 1.0 is equivalent to advancing
  a pupils achievement by one year)

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Jeremy Finn (2003)

• Little evidence that small classes provide more
  individual instruction and higher quality
  teaching generally. Effects due to
• Increase in pupil engagement (time on task,
  attentiveness, active participation, effort
  initiative taking)
• Less anti-social behaviour (opting out,
  distracting others etc.)
• More pro-social behaviour (following rules,
  positive interactions with teacher supporting
  contributions of peers)

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Jeremy Finn (2003)

• 4 Reasons for Higher Engagement
• Visibility of the Individual In small classes
  pupils experience pressure to participate
• Less Diffusion of Responsibility The bigger the
  group the less individuals feel the need to
  participate
• More Group Cohesiveness In smaller groups
  contributions are more highly valued and are thus
  more rewarding
• Greater Sense of Belonging Neither my class
  (teachers) nor your class (pupils) but our class

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Maurice Galton (2004)

• Increased Task engagement is a necessary but
  insufficient explanation of achievement gains in
  smaller classes. Its what pupils do with the
  time that counts.
• Effective teaching is the same for both large and
  small classes but the conditions are more
  favourable in classes lt20
• Gains are maximized in classes following
  transition (nursery to primary primary to
  secondary) when performance dips.

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Class Size and Teacher InteractionHargreaves
Galton (1998)
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Sustained Interactions (Hargreaves Galton 1998)
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Holywells Case Study

• A Suffolk secondary school in special measures
  Some 50 of pupils arrive in Y7 (11 year-olds)
  below national Literacy and numeracy standard
  (Level 4).
• Pupils Level 3 (or below) at Key Stage 2 placed
  in 4 classes, size 20. Others in classes of 30 or
  more.
• Integrated teaching approach for English, maths
  and humanities. Reduced timetable for science,
  arts and French.

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Other Changes

• Attribution change from Im in the small class
  because Im only Level 2 (ability) to I can
  cope in the Y8 bigger class if I work hard
  (effort)
• Despite fewer lessons in Y7 around 33 of pupils
  are in the top sets in Y8 for Science and French
• Improved behaviour, less truancy
• Critical of primary school experiencesTeachers
  didnt listen didnt explain properly.

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MOTIVATION SOME KEY IDEAS
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Learning versus Performance (adapted from
Watkins, C. (2003)

• Learning Orientation
• Belief that effort generates success
• Belief in ones ability to improve
• Preference for challenge
• Capacity to learn from ones mistakes
• Concern for IMPROVING ones competence

• Performing Orientation
• Belief that ability leads to success
• Satisfaction in doing better than others
• Exhibiting learned helplessness when task is
  difficult or challenging
• Concern for PROVING ones competence

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TWO KINDS OF MOTIVATION

• Achievement Mastery
• satisfaction of overcoming previous failure
  through own efforts
• Improves self-esteem
• thrives in a learning orientation

• Academic Satisfaction
• satisfaction at doing better than others
• More concerned with possibility of failure than
  with success
• thrives within a performance orientation.

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CREATING A LEARNING CULTURE

• Classroom talk is less about getting things right
  and more about working out how to do better.
• targets are self-referenced Well done! Youve
  managed to write five lines. Lets see if you can
  do 10 next time.
• Tasks are organized around a Plan, then do, then
  review cycle.

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TEACHING FOR TRANSMISSION FACTUAL
KNOWLEDGE SKILLS PROCEDURES
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Challenging Tasks I
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Teaching as Instruction

• Provide an Advanced Organizer
• Check what pupils know with quick, snappy
  question answer session
• Present new knowledge
• Provide for practice which emphasises
  application
• Extend practice by homework
• Give feedback which is informative
• Review new learning

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Uses of Direct Instruction

• YES FOR THESE
• Mathematical procedures
• English grammar
• Scientific information
• Historical facts
• Use of maps
• Practical skills

• NO FOR THESE
• Extended maths problem solving
• creative writing
• Science other investigations
• Discussing issues with no right or wrong answers

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TEACHING FOR UNDERSTANDING IDEAS PROBLEM
SOLVING CREATING
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Teaching as Enquiry

• Engaging in complex cognitive processes requires
  thoughtful discourse. Pupils are invited to make
  predictions, debate alternatives, etc. This can
  take place during interactive whole class
  teaching or during peer interaction in pairs or
  groups and should involve
• Placing the topic in the wider, meaningful
  context (big picture)
• Using open ended questions
• Allowing suitable wait times
• Encouraging explanations or elaboration of
  answers.

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Key Pupil Indicators of a Learning to Learn
classroom

• Pupil Exploration usually precedes formal
  presentation.
• Initially, tasks are structured to limit the
  range of alternatives pupils could explore.
• There is a high proportion of pupil talk, much of
  it occurring between pupils.
• pupils questions and comments often determine
  the focus of classroom discourse
• Pupils use a variety of means and media to
  communicate their ideas
• lessons often require pupils to reflect
  critically on the procedures and methods used

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Key Teacher Indicators of a Learning to Learn
classroom

• Teachers shift from interactions which are brief
  and random to those that are longer and more
  sustained.
• Teachers become skilled at assessing pupils
  understanding on the basis of what they say
  rather than what they write.
• Teachers are sensitive to the ways body language,
  gesture and location in the classroom can affect
  the type and quality of talk
• Teachers are prepared to change classroom layout
  to meet the requirements of different learning
  tasks and different kinds of learning talk.
• Alexander (2004)

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Talking Rules for both teachers and pupils

• We share ideas and listen to each other
• We talk one at a time
• We respect each others opinions
• We give reasons to explain our ideas
• If we disagree we ask why?
• Mercer (2000)

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3 Kinds of Feedback

• About Self should focus on effort rather than on
  person. Thus Thats a good try rather than
  Good Girl, Well done. Purpose is re-inforcement
• Task processing Where have you got to? What
  do you think may have gone wrong? What are you
  going to do next? Purpose is self-regulation
• sometimes called corrective feedback
  most powerful when it is about faulty
  interpretation rather than supplying missing
  information. Show me how you got that answer
  rather than, You need to do it like this.

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3 Kinds of Feedback Size effects

• Task processing
• self-regulation 0.95
• cues 1.10
• Self
• re-inforcement of effort 0.94
• praise 0.14
• Task
• corrective 0.37

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Challenging Tasks II
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TEACHING AS SCAFFOLDING Temporary frameworks to
helping pupils to learn how to think for
themselves.
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Teaching as Scaffolding

• Reducing the degrees of freedom a child must
  manage in the task to prevent error rather than
  induce it. (Bruner)
• Several scaffolds have been identified from the
  teacher effectiveness literature
• Providing models of appropriate response (e.g.
  model answers, demonstrations etc.)
• Providing prompts and feedback as in guided
  discovery
• Identifying potential problems from the outset
• THESE LOWER THE CHALLENGE BY LOWERING THE RISK
  RESULT EQUALS DEPENDENCE

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Teaching as Scaffolding

• As identified in the cognitive strategy research
  these latter scaffolds appear more effective in
  teaching higher cognitive skills.
• Rehearsing an argument (pupils explain to
  class/group in words their reasoning e.g.their
  answer to a maths problem)
•  Cue Cards ( as in writing frames )
• Self-evaluation checklists (requires pupils to
  check through the process by which they reached a
  conclusion and to indicate how it might be
  improved
• THESE MAINTAIN THE CHALLENGE BUT LOWER THE RISK
  RESULT EQUALS INDEPENDENCE

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Some Key References

• Blatchford, P. (2003) The Class Size Debate Is
  small better? Maidenhead, UK. Open University
  Press.
• Galton, M Ed (1998) Class Size and Pupil
  Achievement, Special Edition International
  Journal of Educational Research, 29 (8).
• Nye, B. et al. (2000) The Effects of Class Size
  on Academic Achievement The results of the
  Tennessee class size experiment American
  Educational Research Journal, 37 (1) 123-151.
• Finn.J.et al. (2003) The Whys of Class Size
  Student Behaviour in Small Classes, Review of
  Educational Research, 73 (3) 321-368.

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More Key References

• Alexander, R. (2004) Towards Dialogic Teaching
  Rethinking Classroom Talk, Cambridge Dialogus
  UK.
• Craft, Anna (2000) Creativity across the primary
  curriculum, London Routledge.
• Mercer, N. (2000) Words and Minds How we use
  language to think together, London Routledge
• Watkins, C (2003) Learning A sense-makers guide,
  London Association of Teachers and Lecturers
  (ATL).
• Wood, D. (1998) How Children Think and
  Learn,Oxford Blackwells