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1
Immigrants Raising Citizens The Second
Generation in the First Years of Life

• Hirokazu Yoshikawa,
• Harvard Graduate School of Education
• Baruch College, CUNY, April 2009
• Thanks Catherine Tamis-LeMonda, Ronit
  Kahana-Kalman, CRCDE researchers at NYU and
  Harvard, and the NSF, Russell Sage Foundation,
  and William T. Grant Foundation

2
Overview of Research Programs

• Impact on children of efforts to improve the
  quality of early childhood care and education
• Cluster-randomized trial in Chile (Fundacion
  Oportunidad)
• Regression-discontinuity study in Boston (IES)
• Meta-analysis of policies and programs across
  prenatal period to age 5 (Buffett Early Childhood
  Fund)
• Parental employment and child development
• Low-wage workers in the US welfare to work and
  antipoverty experiments
• Parent work trajectories, parenting and child
  development in urban China
• The development of young children in low-income
  immigrant families

3
Overview

• Undocumented Status An understudied factor in
  theories and studies of the second generation
• Description of study sample and methods
• 3) Tales of Fujian and Puebla mechanisms of
  how parent undocumented status could affect child
  development

4

• Undocumented Status An understudied factor in
  theories and studies of the second generation?
• Description of study sample and methods
• 3) Tales of Fujian and Puebla different
  mechanisms of how parent undocumented status
  could affect child development

5
Demographic Overview (Capps Fix, 2005 Passel
Cohn, 2008)

• Estimated 11.9 million undocumented immigrants in
  the U.S. in 2008 30 of foreign-born
• 59 from Mexico
• 22 other Latin Am
• 12 Asia (principally China, India, Korea,
  Philippines)
• Of all Mexican foreign-born 56 are unauthorized
  of those in US for 10 years or less, 80-85
• Of Mexican unauthorized, estimated 25-40 visa
  overstayers rest (60-75) border crossers
• No clear path to citizenship (Motomura, 2006)
• Two-thirds of children of undocumented parents
  are U.S.-born (i.e., citizen children in
  mixed-status families)

6
An overlooked factor in studies of the second
generation

• Assimilation theories and the 2nd generation
  citizenship and documentation part of theoretical
  frameworks, but emphasis on peer effects,
  community norms, neighborhood economic
  opportunity, intergroup contact.
• Factors most studied in segmented assimilation of
  2nd generation not as relevant to 0 to 3.
• Transnational theories emphasize political,
  institutional and network participation across
  borders.
• Both sets of theories little empirical work on
  parent citizenship / documentation status and
  development of the 2nd generation.

7
Undocumented status and recent waves of
immigration from Mexico and China in NY

• Mexicans from Puebla / Guerrero / Mixteca region,
  Chinese from Fujian Relatively early in waves of
  immigration to NY (Liang, 2001 Smith, 2006)
• Most have arrived in the last 10-15 years
• Numbers growing
• Relatively high rates of disadvantage,
  undocumented status

8
Apparent reasons not to worry about this group

• Recent immigrants Lower levels of racial/ethnic
  discrimination
• At school entry MX and Asian childrens
  attentiveness and persistence higher than other
  groups of similar backgrounds internalizing and
  externalizing no different (Crosnoe, 2006)
• Our data
• Mexicans lower economic hardship than
  Dominicans, African Americans
• Mexicans higher system justification (perceived
  fairness of US society as a whole) than African
  Americans or Dominicans (Godfrey, 2008)
• Mexicans US government more generous than MX re
  children, families

9
Reasons to worry about this group

• Non-citizens higher food insecurity (Van Hook
  Balistreri, 2006 Kalil Chen, 2008)
• Mexican children low preschool enrollment
  (4-year olds 55 in US vs. 80 in MX Hernandez,
  Denton, Macartney, 2007 Yoshikawa et al.,
  2007)
• At school entry MXs lower on overall physical
  health, math scores, controlling for SES
  indicators (Crosnoe, 2006) lower on reading
  scores (Han, 2006)
• Mexican adolescents high dropout rates
• Chinese adolescents lower self-esteem, higher
  depression and social isolation relative to
  White, Black, and Latino counterparts in urban
  multi-ethnic schools (Fuligni Qin, Way,
  Mukherjee, 2008 Kao, 1999)

10
Early cognitive development

• MX children at 24 months Lower than African
  Americans on expressive language using Mullen
  Scales lower than Dominicans on MacArthur
  Communication Inventory (each word asked in
  Spanish and English difference due to English
  vocabulary of Dominican children) videotaped
  language in process
• MX children at 36 months Lower than African
  Americans on expressive language (by .66 SD)
• Difference not explained by indicators of family
  structure, mother / father education, employment,
  occupational complexity household earnings
  adults in household children in household
  child sex, birth order language(s) spoken at
  home

11
US frameworks of disadvantage and poverty may be
inadequate

• Traditional theories of disadvantage
  (poverty-based) or discrimination dont measure
  everyday experiences of incorporation or
  exclusion (might not be accompanied by
  perceptions of discrimination or exclusion)
• Social exclusion theory A more promising theory
  to inform research on this group (Alba, 2005
  Burchardt, LeGrand, Piachaud, 2002 Lenoir,
  1974)
• Indicators of social marginalization and
  disadvantage beyond poverty

12
Social exclusion isdistinct from poverty

• Social exclusion applied to civic membership
• Low participation in and access to institutions
  and resources driven by citizenship status
• Public e.g., education, legal, health care,
  policy
• Private social institutions, organizations,
  networks
• Not simply material disadvantage
• Overlooked in US work on poverty and childrens
  development (Kamerman Kahn, 2002 Micklewright,
  2002)
• EU prominent in theory policy (National Action
  Plans Against Poverty and Social Exclusion)

13
Research Question

• What are everyday experiences as a parent that
  might be associated with being undocumented?
• Are parents everyday experiences of being
  undocumented associated with very early
  development, controlling for indicators of SES?

14

• Undocumented Status An overlooked factor in
  theories and studies of the second generation?
• Description of study sample and methods
• 3) Tales of Fujian and Puebla different
  mechanisms of how parent undocumented status
  could affect child development

15
Center for Research on Culture, Development and
Education

• Aim How do family, peers, schools, and parental
  employment influence child and adolescent
  development in multiple ethnic and immigrant
  groups in New York City?
• 2 cohorts birth (Tamis-LeMonda, Yoshikawa) and
  adolescent (Hughes and Way)
• CRCDE birth cohort 3 NYC hospitals serving
  Mexican, Dominican, Chinese, U.S.-born African
  American
• 374 mothers of newborn infants
• 114 African American (100 2nd generation)
• 113 Dominican (86 1st generation)
• 93 Mexican (100 1st generation) (MX births gt
  DR births for first time in NYC, 2000-2005)
• 54 Chinese (100 1st generation)

16
CRCDE Birth Cohort Study Assessment Schedule

• Baseline interviews with mothers in hospitals
  post-partum wards
• Phone interviews at 1 month and 6 months
• 14-, 24-, 36- and 52-mo home visits (2-3 hours)
  survey, videotaped observation of mothers and
  children, direct child assessment

17
CRCDE Qualitative Studies(Yoshikawa, Chaudry,
Torres, Rivera)

• Two studies (2003-2004 and 2005-2007)
• Study I (prior to larger cohort recruitment)
• Families with children between 9 and 36 months
• Study II stratified random subsample of birth
  cohort
• Both studies
• 7-10 visits total per family
• Study I visits every 2-3 weeks
• Study II visits every 8-10 wks (child 9 to 30
  months)
• 6 semi-structured Interviews participant
  observation (all visits) with extensive field
  notes
• Transcription, translation
• Combined N 11 Dominican, 13 Mexican, 5 Chinese
  families

18
CRCDE Birth Cohort Likely variation in
undocumented status across groups

• Chinese and Mexicans Highest proportions
  undocumented
• Dominicans Moderate proportion
• African Americans All U.S.-born
• Today focus on CH, MX

19
African Americans in sample relative to African
American concentration, 2000 Census
20
Mexicans in sample relative to Mexican
concentration, 2000 Census
21
Chinese in sample relative to Chinese
concentration, 2000 Census
22
Dominicans in sample relative to Dominican
concentration, 2000 Census
23
Puebla and Fujian

• Largest sending regions to New York City from MX
  and CN
• Puebla 7th highest in economic disadvantage
  among 31 states (2000 CONAPO index).
• Fujian one of the wealthier provinces
  increasing inequality post-economic reforms
  (Liang, 2001)
• Both groups
• Relatively large proportions of undocumented
• Recent increases (since early 1990s) in
  emigration to NYC
• Chain migration international smuggling
  operations
• Remittances and economic development in sending
  regions
• What about family life and implications for
  childrens development?

24

• Undocumented Status An understudied factor in
  theories and studies of the second generation?
• Description of study sample and methods
• 3) Tales of Fujian and Puebla different
  mechanisms of how parent undocumented status
  could affect child development

25
Ling
26
Ling and Guang

• Ling, late 30s and husband Wei, also late 30s
  come to New York in late 1980s
• Met in early 1980s at a tire factory in Fujian
• Son Guang, age 11 (2 younger kids as well)
• Family of farmers I had nothing to do in the
  countryside.
• 28,000 (now upwards of 60,000-80,000)
• Prayed to Stone Bamboo Mountain
• Hardships of early crossings mountain crossing
  to Thailand thefts.

27
Guang to Fujian province

• Sent Guang back to China 2 months to 4 years
• Remittances 1,500 a year.
• Ling Separation is why Guang is less close to
  her and husband than other 2 children.
• US preschool teacher - Did your dad and mom
  treat you nice? No only my grandparents.
• Age 4 Old enough to study. And he can attend
  preK.
• Theory of ability not effort I told my husband,
  I think we dont have the talent we didnt have
  people who study in our last generation.
• Used to send Guang to Chinese shadow schooling
  But I am busy and sometimes lazy. I dont think
  they could learn much there.

28
CRCDE rates of sending back to home country in
first 6 months

• Chinese 72
• Dominican 22
• Mexican 1

29
Reasons for sending home
30
Changle County, Fujian

• Primary sending county to US (others JP, AU / NZ,
  EU)
• Airport in Changle No accident! (Liang, 2001)
• Hx of emigration economic development post-1978
  tied to foreign trade
• Once chain migration starts, relative deprivation
  drives emigration. Remittances, fancy apartment
  buildings, returnees lavish spending
• Those with no interest in leaving mei chu xi
  no great future

31
Men who return

• Male marriage market advantages
• Ling If they came back to the US and go back to
  get married, if they choose, the first ones they
  choose are very beautiful women. So many women,
  they put the womens pictures there to let you
  choose. So they all wanted to come to the U.S.
  They almost all came. Like my family, theres
  only my mom there.

32
Mei later in wave of Fujianese migration

• Mei arrival 10 yrs after Ling. Immediate
  family is almost all in US.
• No extreme hardships, land crossings.
• Parents farmers too When I asked her about her
  childhood she was ashamed and thought it
  worthless to talk about it. Because there was
  nothing special. Without toys she grew up
  hanging out with a group of children in the
  village.
• Life now in Fuzhou is so different her cousin
  just had a newborn girl. After the birth her
  cousin stopped working. They hired a live-in
  nanny and bought their own house. With a good
  job life in China its really better than here.
  You see we have to pay for such a living
  condition.

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Inscription on gate

• ???????????
• ??XXX ???????
• The Sun shines upon morning dews reflecting a
  thousand rays in the gold world
• The Moon shines upon XXXX reflecting thousands of
  miles in the jade universe
• ??????????? 2003?10?
• Donated and built by Chinese American Mr. Yang
  Yezhun in October 2003

40
Consequences for children of sending and return?

• Rong et al. (2007) Fuzhou Normal University
  preschool sent-back children raised by
  grandparents lower on cognitive and
  socioemotional assessments than children being
  raised by own parents.
• Why?
• Large generational differences in China
  education, rural / urban origins, human capital,
  wages.
• Implications for parenting practices (Rong et al.
  preschool feeding story Nanjing project)
• Possible implications for attachment
• Long-term implications for Fujianese-origin
  children following returns to US unknown reports
  of behavior problems in NY Head Start
• Contributions to lower psychological well-being
  later in life?

41
NYC contexts Employment

• Parental Employment of undocumented Fujianese
  Nearly entirely restricted to restaurants
• Restaurant pathway to economic mobility for
  Fujianese
• 70-80K monthly take (NYC)
• 60-70K start up for storefront restaurant, 400K
  for buffet
• She told me every visit that one of her friends
  owns 3 buffet restaurants and is thinking of
  opening a 4th.
• Typically 12 hours a day of work plus commute 6
  days a week
• Average work hours for Chinese (63.6) gt MX gt DR
  and AA
• Wage / hours violations extremely common
  (Ollies Saigon Grill Silver Palace cases)
• Extremely high mobility across eastern U.S.
  snakeheads, E Broadway employment agencies.
• Network lending, but doesnt want to participate
  in formal lending pool but if someone runs
  away there goes the organization.

42
Yolanda
43
Yolanda

• Early 30s, living in E Harlem, came 5 years ago
• Grew up in Puebla in a village outside city
• Oldest received order from husband Horacio
  (already in US) that he had arranged for her
  crossing came within a week. I had no choice.
• 3 children, Angel (3), Lucero (7), and Jorge
  (11), one of whom (the middle one) is husbands
  child with another woman

44
Yolanda

• Horacio Restaurant delivery, work-related injury
  dream to become a taxi driver doesnt want
  his son now that he is older to see him as his
  father who never amounted to anything.
• Drives friends gypsy cab but spends hours not
  picking up customers. No access to taxi license
  in NY (SSN).
• Quits job to go to MD to find work they give
  out drivers licenses there to undocumented?
• Horacio doesnt want Yolanda to work more than
  P/T.
• She reaches a point in which me empezo a pisar,
  y yo saque las uñas.
• Yolanda Food Stamps for children but hides this
  from Horacio hes man enough to provide for
  his family.
• US economic hardship driven by emergency
  remittance needs in MX.

45
Yolanda

• Housing ceiling of BR trash cans.
• Rats, cockroaches and mold no matter how much
  she cleans and disinfects. Repairs only when
  building inspected.
• No quiet lighted place for studying in house
  Jorge and Lucero often get annoyed with Angel
  because he gets in their way when they try to do
  schoolwork.
• Sometimes when depressed wants to kill herself.

46
Yolanda and her Family Hypotheses

• Experiences associated with undocumented status
  and child development?
• 1) Lack of access to resources requiring
  identification
• 2) Access to policy supports for children and
  families and take-up of policies for which
  children eligible
• 3) Low quality and recourse in housing, work, and
  other contexts
• Mechanisms of effects on young child development
  economic hardship parent psychological
  distress?

47
Access to institutional resources that require
identification

• Why are undocumented immigrant parents less
  likely to take up conditional cash transfers /
  formal job training?
• 1) Formal exclusion (cf. NC community colleges)
  but also
• 2) Avoid accessing resources that require
  identification
• Resources that require identification
• Formal banking (checking account, savings
  account)
• Credit
• Drivers license
• Index measure

48
Do rates of access to resources requiring
identification differ?
49
Conceptual Model Access to Resources Requiring
Identification
Visual reception
Economic hardship
Ethnic/ immigrant group (Mexican
1stgen./ Dominican 1st gen./ AfAm U.S.-born)
Mexicans higher rates of undocumented status than
Dominicans
Fine Motor
Household- level Access to institutional resources
Psychological distress
Receptive Language
Cognitive stimulation index
Expressive Language
50
Figure 3. Institutional Resources Model Full
Sample.
Economic hardship (24 mos.)
Economic hardship (14 mos.)
Fit Statistics ?2(51) 58.86 NNFI .97 CFI
.98 RMSEA .022 (.000 to .043)
.46
.14t
.22
-.28
Dominican (AfAm reference group)
-.20
Mullen Early Learning Composite (24 mos.)
.19
Institutional resources (14 mos.)
Psychological distress (24 mos.)
Psychological distress (14 mos.)
.75
-.28
Mexican (AfAm reference group)
-.21
-.20
Daily cogstim activities index (14 mos.)
Daily cogstim activities index (24 mos.)
.49
Notes Paths in bold are statistically
significant Numbers in diagram are
standardized path coefficients

51
Figure 4. Institutional Resources Model Mexicans
and Dominicans
Economic hardship (24 mos.)
Economic hardship (14 mos.)
Fit Statistics ?2(43) 29.10 NNFI 1.122 CFI
1.00 RMSEA .000 (.000 to .004)
.50
-.37
.18
-.30
Mullen Early Learning Composite (24 mos.)
Mexican (Dominican reference group)
Institutional resources (14 mos.)
Psychological distress (24 mos.)
Psychological distress (14 mos.)
-.41
.73
-.25
-.20
Daily cogstim activities index (14 mos.)
Daily cogstim activities index (24 mos.)
.43
Notes Paths in bold are statistically
significant Numbers in diagram are
standardized path coefficients

52

• Model fits equally well in each group, suggesting
  that markers of social exclusion may differ
  across groups, but also have similar consequences
  within groups

53

• 2) Access to Policies and take-up of policies for
  which children are eligible

54
Immigrant parents NY eligibility

• No access to Medicaid for themselves
• No access to public housing
• Access to prenatal (and postnatal care up to 6
  weeks) in NY
• Access to emergency medical care for themselves

55
Lower levels of take-up of policies for which
US-born children are eligible

• U.S.-born children are fully eligible (e.g., for
  Food Stamps, TANF, CCDF child care subsidies,
  Title I, well-child visits, etc.) however,
  undocumented parents often do not take up
  programs, policies for eligible children (Capps
  et al., 2005 Matthews Ewen, 2006)
• Low rates of use of Food Stamps, health insurance
  coverage, TANF, relative to children of citizen
  immigrant parents (Kalil Chen, 2008, ECLS-K)
• Low rates of use of preschool education, relative
  to children of native parents (Hernandez, Denton,
  Macartney, 2006)

56
Program Use at 14 months (since childs birth)
Racial/ethnic differences are significant
across all groups. Mexicans and Dominicans
significantly different from African Americans.
57
Reasons for low take-up of policies and programs

• Fewer sources of information about policy
  (Yoshikawa, Rivera, Chaudry Tamis-LeMonda,
  2005)
• MXs lower availability of multiple forms of
  social support (child, financial, job related)
• Among MXs lower social support predictive of
  Food Stamp take-up (Little Yoshikawa, 2007)
• Beliefs about consequences of program use
• Messages dissuading use from providers (given
  complex public charge laws in uncertain policy
  context)?

58
Beliefs re Consequencesof Benefit Use

• Mexican families concern that their U.S.-born
  children would be required to pay back the
  government for any public aid they receive now
• Mexican mother
• M Ladies, like when I went to the park, they
  told me about welfare. When I was not
  working, a Puerto-Rican lady told me that I
  should ask for that, that for almost all the
  children, the ladies ask for that help. That I
  should ask for that help, that the majority of
  people ask for help, that children born here
  should. But my husband doesnt want to. I
  And why doesnt he want to?
• M He says no because, according to a guy who
  was telling him that when they are older they
  send them to war. And he wouldnt like that for
  him baby. Because of the same, if the
  government helps us, after, that is, they will
  force us to help. They count on him, and thats
  why he doesnt want to.

59
Beliefs re Negative Consequencesof Benefit Use

• Mexican mother
• I tell you that as much as a girl wants to study
  go to university, that the government gives us
  the loan, so that they can go to university. And
  you say that because of their work, or sometimes
  they use benefits for everything. So if the
  person or the persons mother takes advantage of
  this aid, then there isnt much left for
  student loans because its like their savings
  that the government is going to lend them.
• These kinds of beliefs also widespread among LPR
  immigrant parents

60

• 4) Low quality and recourse in housing, work, and
  other contexts

61
Housing Quality and Undocumented Status?

• She says it makes it hard to get a lease without
  a lease, the super can neglect upkeep.
• The apartment building has been in horrible
  condition, and the super does a very poor job of
  maintaining the place. The walls are constantly
  being scratched at by rats. She has about three
  holes that she covers up with glue traps so that
  the rats dont come in to their apartment. The
  kitchen sink was leaking causing the wood from
  the cabinet underneath to rot. The toilet in the
  bathroom was also loose and water would leak out
  from the base, causing the bathroom to stink
  whenever they would use it. Since bathroom is
  right next to the kitchen, this especially
  bothered her.
• Child diagnosed with chronic respiratory
  condition at 12 months

62
Rates of overnight hospitalization, 0-24 mos,
Mexican infants (Holding Yoshikawa, 2008)
20 of Mexican infants hospitalized in the first
24 months 46 of those hospitalized for
respiratory symptoms
National data (Harris, 1999 Mendoza Dixon,
1999) Mexican young children higher asthma than
other groups differences disappear by
adolescence Hispanic Health and Nutrition
Examination Survey
63
Work Quality

• Wage growth and returns to education MX
  documented gt MX undocumented (Rivera-Batiz, 1999)
• Unsafe work conditions, payment problems, and
  working without breaks Latino undocumented gt
  Latino LPR (Mehta, Theodore, Mora, Wade, 2002
  Chicago study)
• Only 6 of immigrants experiencing unsafe
  conditions reported them to OSHA due to fear of
  employer reprisal or belief that it would not
  help
• In our sample MXs significantly lower levels of
  occupational complexity than AA, DR, CH

64
Community Organizing?

• Distressingly, virtually no reports from our
  ethnographic samples, despite immigration policy
  debate
• Only link to organizing CBO serving MX community
  in E Harlem (1 mention in pilot ethnography)
• Conflicting opinions re 2006 immigration policy
  debate risk of being deported has increased now
  theres hope of a path to citizenship
• Hospital-based birth cohort lower rates of
  organizing and resistance than prior studies of
  undocumented immigrants sampled in other ways?
  (e.g., Zlolniski, 2006)

65
In-process assessments to further explore
everyday experiences of undocumented status

• Housing problems and repair dynamics
• Likelihood of contacting authority figures in
  situations of everyday injustice
• Boss owes you money but refuses to pay you
• Experiences of discrimination towards self or
  child, in work or school
• Someone cheated you in a service context
• Likelihood of hearing about organizing efforts in
  situations of injustice
• With full qualitative analyses more comparisons
  of documented vs. undocumented within group

66
Conclusion
67
Effects of parent undocumented status on
children?

• A potential additional explanation beyond poverty
  and forms of capital for later disparities
• Exclusion might affect child development without
  a pathway through parents perceptions of
  exclusion or discrimination
• Chinese potential effects on well-being through
  separations and parental transitions in first
  years of life
• Mexicans effects on early cognitive development
  through economic hardship and higher parental
  distress, perhaps affecting quality of
  parent-child interactions
• Other potential mechanisms point in wave of
  immigration network characteristics (proportion
  of undocumented adults / age / experience raising
  children support and investments in chidlren)

68
Questions / Next Steps

• Full qualitative sample analyses
• Growth curve analyses of child outcomes and
  family processes (14, 24, 36 mos)
• More exploration of employment organizational /
  network data and new measures

69
Thanks

• Participating families
• National Science Foundation, Russell Sage
  Foundation, William T. Grant Foundation
• PIs Catherine Tamis-LeMonda, Ronit
  Kahana-Kalman, Diane Hughes, Niobe Way
• ECC Team at NYU
• Field workers Boon Ngeo, Qing Xue, Ximena
  Acevedo, Gigliana Melzi, Margaret Caspe, Nia Ebon
  West-Bey, Kimberly Torres, Hirokazu Yoshikawa,
  Ann C. Rivera, Patricia Ruiz-Navarro, Frank
  Gaytan, Maria Reyes Lopez, Maria Ramos
  Olazagasti, Ajay Chaudry, Renelinda Arana, Monica
  Brannon, Erin B. Godfrey, Eva Ruiz, Bronwyn
  Becker, Carolin Hagelskamp

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Employment MX

• Lowest occupational complexity
• Fathers most common delivery or work in a
  restaurant
• Typically 12 hours a week plus commute 6 days a
  week and sometimes 7 days a week
• Mothers lower rates of employment
• Typical garment factory housecleaning
• Wages at or near minimum wage
• Experiences of lacking English knowledge
• Co-workers with English knowledge get easier more
  clerical tasks mixed in (Elda packing boxes)
• 1 mother worked for months in a home with her
  employer calling her Maria