Taking Aim at Comprehension: Teaching Children to Infer

1
Taking Aim at ComprehensionTeaching Children to
Infer

• Michael C. McKenna
• University of Virginia

Sharon Walpole University of Delaware
2
What does it mean to comprehend? Lets begin by
considering some key definitions of comprehension
and looking for common elements.
3
What is Reading Comprehension?

• building bridges from the new to the known
• Pearson Johnson (1978)

4
What is Reading Comprehension?
the construction of the meaning of a written
text through a reciprocal interchange of ideas
between the reader and the message in a
particular text Harris Hodges (1995)
5
What is Reading Comprehension?

• thinking guided by print
• Perfetti (1995)

6
What is Reading Comprehension?

• the process of simultaneously extracting and
  constructing meaning through interaction and
  involvement with written language. It consists
  of three elements the reader, the text, and the
  activity or purpose for reading
• Rand Reading Study Group (2002)

7
Take Five

• Does the comprehension instruction you see in
  your classrooms reflect a deep understanding of
  what reading comprehension is?

8
Todays Goals

• Review the Georgia Performance Standards for
  reading comprehension across grades K-3
• Consider the problem of distinguishing strategies
  from skills and how the distinction relates to
  the GPS.
• Learn more about inferences in reading
• Examine research-based approaches for building
  inferential skills
• Select from among these approaches and apply them
  to a chosen text

9
Back at School

• Work with teachers at one grade level as they
  plan to apply one or more of these approaches to
  trade books and/or core selections.
• Follow up with individual teachers to see how it
  went.

10
Building Success in Reading First
3
2
1
K
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Taking Aim at Comprehension Third grade is the
end of a childs Reading First experience, and
comprehension is the end goal of reading
instruction. So what should a third-grade
comprehender be able to do? Lets be specific.
The Georgia Performance Standards for third grade
detail the abilities needed for good
comprehension abilities reflected in the CRCT.
Lets take a few moments to consider them. The
chart allows you to trace third-grade abilities
to their counterparts in grades K-2. This is the
big picture of how Georgias children are
expected to develop as comprehenders. Keep in
mind that the abilities are always relative to
grade-level text. This is why the same ability
can be repeated verbatim.
12

• Task 1
• Is the mapping across the four grade levels
  clear?
• Can you think of important comprehension
  abilities that are not represented?
• Are there comprehension abilities that you
  consider relatively unimportant? Why?
• Which abilities, at any of the grade levels, are
  not well represented in your core program?

Remember that these abilities were used to
revise the CRCT in grades 1-3!
13
The elements of the Georgia Performance Standards
are described differently by core programs. The
same element may be classified as a skill by one
program and as a strategy by another. Skill
or Strategy?
14
Whats the difference between a comprehension
skill and a comprehension strategy?
A skill is applied automatically, but a strategy
is a thinking process that is used consciously
and intentionally to achieve some goal.
15
That seems pretty clear. Why all the confusion?
There are two reasons. First, Scott Paris and his
colleagues point out that a skill for proficient
readers may be a strategy for developing readers.
For example, a beginner may need to consciously
infer a sequence of events, while you and I tend
to do it automatically.
16
In fact, as Dan Willingham points out, some of
the strategies we teach children are rarely
used by proficient, older readers. An example is
constructing a timeline or story map to help us
understand a narrative.
17
The second reason is that different writers on
the subject have listed what they believe to be
important strategies, but their lists are
different. For instance, Dan Willingham offers
one list, and Janice Almasi suggests a slightly
different one.
18
But isnt there a commonly agreed upon list of
comprehension strategies?
No. There are numerous lists but none that
everyone accepts. The lists contain common items,
such as summarizing, but there is no agreed upon
list. Its no wonder that in the Literacy
Dictionary, Harris and Hodges state, There is
little consensus in the research literature on
what constitutes a comprehension strategy.
19
But didnt the National Reading Panel identify
research-based comprehension strategies?
No. The NRP was concerned about instructional
strategies that research has shown to be
effective. The word strategy has two meanings
that are sometimes confused.
20
So, does the difference between a skill and a
strategy really matter?
Its best to think in terms of elements. These
are the components of the Georgia Performance
Standards. Whether a commercial program calls an
element a skill or a strategy is not very
important.
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Which of the GPS elements are most important?
Theyre all important, but three are the basis of
many other elements. These three are also
required for most of the strategies listed by
experts no matter whose list theyre on! So
its important that K-3 teachers focus on those
three elements.
22
Which three GPS elements are the building blocks
of the others?
They all concern the ability to infer. Lets take
a look.
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GPS Elements that are the cornerstones
inferential comprehension.
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How do these elements support others?
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c. Generates questions to improve
comprehension f. Makes judgments and inferences
about setting, characters, and events and
supports them with evidence from the text i.
Makes connections between texts and/or personal
experiences
b. Makes predictions from text content c.
Generates questions to improve
comprehension g. Summarizes text content
c. Generates questions to improve
comprehension g. Summarizes text content p.
Recognizes the authors purpose
Identifies and infers cause-and-effect
relationships and draws conclusions
Recalls explicit facts and infers implicit facts
Identifies and infers main idea and supporting
details.
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What is an inference?

• An inference is a logical conclusion reached by
  combining two or more facts.
• Some inferences are certain, others are matters
  of conjecture.

Lets consider two examples.
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Example One Text Los Angeles is in California.
California is west of the Mississippi River.
Certain Inference Los Angeles is west of the
Mississippi.
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Example Two Text The temperature on Pluto is
hundreds of degrees below zero. Pluto has no
atmosphere, and very little sunlight reaches it.
Probable Inference There is no life on Pluto.
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An inference is a statement about the
unknown made on the basis of the known.
This means that all predictions are inferences!
S. I. Hayakawa
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What is inferential comprehension?

• Inferential comprehension means grasping facts
  that are not explicitly stated.
• A reader does this in two ways
• by linking a fact in the text with a fact in
  prior knowledge
• by linking two facts in the text

Lets see how this works.
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Linking a fact in the text with a fact in prior
knowledge
Prior Knowledge Text
Every cat is either male or female. 2 4 6
Mollys cat just had six kittens. She named the
girls Flossie and Florie.
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Linking a fact in the text with a fact in prior
knowledge
Prior Knowledge Text
Every cat is either male or female. 2 4 6
Mollys cat just had six kittens. She named the
girls Flossie and Florie.
Hmm, the other four kittens must be boys.
Inference
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Linking two facts in the text
Prior Knowledge Text
Knowledge of concepts is activated, but a
key inference comes from combining text facts.
Atlanta is the largest city in Georgia. Augusta
is the second largest.
34
Linking two facts in the text
Prior Knowledge Text
Knowledge of concepts is activated, but a
key inference comes from combining text facts.
Atlanta is the largest city in Georgia. Augusta
is the second largest.
Hmm, Ive never heard of Augusta, but it must be
in Georgia.
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Why is inferential comprehension so important?

• Take five to discuss this at your table.

36
Why is inferential comprehension so important?

• When students infer as they read,
• they link facts presented explicitly in the text,
• they link facts in the text with prior knowledge,
• they process the content actively, which helps
  them understand and remember it better.

37
Key GPS Inferential Elements

• Inferring facts
• Inferring main ideas
• Inferring cause-and-effect relationships

38
Before During After
Based on the comprehension framework from the
Reading First Teacher Academies, it is important
to think carefully about the best time to
implement an instructional technique before,
during, or after reading. Many of the techniques
we will discuss today are best used during
reading, while teachers work with students to
guide their comprehension. Some techniques can be
implemented before or after reading, and a few
can be used at multiple points during a lesson.
As we discuss each technique, think about the
best time to use it.
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Key GPS Inferential Elements

• Inferring facts
• Inferring main ideas
• Inferring cause-and-effect relationships

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What does this element involve?

• The reader logically connects two facts to arrive
  at a third fact that is not stated.
• Both of the original facts may be in the text.
• OR
• One fact may be in the text and the other in the
  readers prior knowledge.

How can teachers foster this ability?
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The best place to start is by modeling the
process of inferring a fact. You can do this
through a think-aloud.
42

• Teacher Think-Aloud One Fact in Text
• A teacher should model how a stated fact can be
  linked to prior knowledge.
• Choose a single sentence from a core selection, a
  trade book, or a read-aloud. The sentence must
  clearly state a fact that will support an
  inference based on knowledge children are likely
  to possess.
• Think through how you yourself went about linking
  the facts.
• Plan your think-aloud.
• Make sure you involve students when you deliver
  it.

43
Hurricane season along the East Coast of the
United States begins in June and continues until
the end of November. The peak hurricane months
are August and September. The East Coast averages
about five hurricanes a year. Over other parts of
the world, hurricanes happen year-round.
Since Georgia children live on the East Coast,
this passage has real significance for them! Of
course, the author had no way of knowing where
they live, but the teacher can underscore this
fact and use it to make an inference.
44
Hurricane season along the East Coast of the
United States begins in June and continues until
the end of November. The peak hurricane months
are August and September. The East Coast averages
about five hurricanes a year. Over other parts of
the world, hurricanes happen year-round.
Teacher After reading the first sentence
aloud Look at our map. Here is the East
Coast. You can see that Georgia is on the East
Coast. The author says that hurricanes might
come between June and November. We need to be
careful then! Lets look at our calendar. I
can see that in the spring well be safe
from hurricanes.
The teacher makes sure that an important fact not
mentioned in the text is understood. Then a
stated fact is used to make the inference.
45

• Teacher Think-Aloud Two Facts in Text
• A good reader is constantly linking the
  information in each new sentence to sentences
  previously read. This process is called bridging,
  or making backward inferences. A teacher can
  demonstrate the process by thinking aloud. Here
  are some typical situations where bridging is
  appropriate
• A pronoun refers back to an antecedent in a
  previous sentence.

46
Toad woke up. Drat! he said. This house is a
mess. I have so much work to do. Frog looked
through the window. Toad, you are right, said
Frog. It is a mess. Toad pulled the covers
over his head.
47
Toad woke up. Drat! he said. This house is a
mess. I have so much work to do. Frog looked
through the window. Toad, you are right, said
Frog. It is a mess. Toad pulled the covers
over his head.
The teacher points to the word it and says, Now
when Frog says, It is a mess, the word it goes
back to the word here the the finger slowly
moves up the page house.
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Toad woke up. Drat! he said. This house is a
mess. I have so much work to do. Frog looked
through the window. Toad, you are right, said
Frog. It is a mess. Toad pulled the covers
over his head.
The teacher points to the word it and says, Now
when Frog says, It is a mess, the word it goes
back to the word here the the finger slowly
moves up the page house.
49

• Teacher Think-Aloud Two Facts in Text
• A good reader is constantly linking the
  information in each new sentence to sentences
  previously read. This process is called bridging,
  or making backward inferences. A teacher can
  demonstrate the process by thinking aloud. Here
  are some typical situations where bridging is
  appropriate
• A pronoun refers back to an antecedent in a
  previous sentence.
• A noun is used to refer to another noun.
  (Technically, this type of reference is called
  anaphora.)

50
Red ants are very busy bugs! The spend each day
finding food and bringing it back home. They also
build tunnels and guard their eggs. These insects
are great workers.
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Red ants are very busy bugs! The spend each day
finding food and bringing it back home. They also
build tunnels and guard their eggs. These insects
are great workers.
The teacher points to the word insects and says,
Now when I see the word insect, I know the
author is really just using another word for
here the the finger slowly moves up the page
ants.
52
Red ants are very busy bugs! The spend each day
finding food and bringing it back home. They also
build tunnels and guard their eggs. These insects
are great workers.
The teacher points to the word insects and says,
Now when I see the word insect, I know the
author is really just using another word for
here the the finger slowly moves up the page
ants.
53

• Teacher Think-Aloud Two Facts in Text
• A good reader is constantly linking the
  information in each new sentence to sentences
  previously read. This process is called bridging,
  or making backward inferences. A teacher can
  demonstrate the process by thinking aloud. Here
  are some typical situations where bridging is
  appropriate
• A pronoun refers back to an antecedent in a
  previous sentence.
• A noun is used to refer to another noun.
  (Technically, this type of reference is called
  anaphora.)
• A logical conclusion is drawn by combining the
  ideas of two sentences.

54
The blue whale is as long as a basketball court.
Its eyes are as big as softballs. Its tongue
weighs as much as an elephant. It is the biggest
animal that has ever lived on earth bigger than
any dinosaur.
The author offers two comparisons to convey how
large a blue whale is. An inference can combine
these comparisons and arrive at a fact the author
does not state. The teacher can think through
the process.
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The blue whale is as long as a basketball court.
Its eyes are as big as softballs. Its tongue
weighs as much as an elephant. It is the biggest
animal that has ever lived on earth bigger than
any dinosaur.
The teacher uses the dinosaur and basketball
comparisons to infer a new comparison, reasoning
aloud for the students.
Teacher Wow, blue whales are really big! I
thought dinosaurs were bigger, but I guess
none of them were. The author says that a blue
whale is as long as a basketball court!
Hmm, that must mean that dinosaurs were not
that long.
56

• Task 2
• Choose a segment of text in a trade book or core
  selection in which facts that can be linked
  through a think-aloud.
• Plan how this think-aloud would be worded.
• Prepare to share!

57
Teacher Think-Aloud Linking Facts with Charts
and Diagrams

• Think-alouds can also link facts by means of
  charts and diagrams.
• The teacher constructs one on a white board or
  chart paper during a guided reading lesson or a
  read-aloud.
• Lets look at two examples.

58
Inside the earth it is very hot hot enough to
melt rock. The melted rock is called
magma. Sometimes the magma pushes through cracks
in the crust. When magma comes to the surface, it
is called lava. The lava cools and becomes very
hard. It becomes igneous rock.
59
Inside the earth it is very hot hot enough to
melt rock. The melted rock is called
magma. Sometimes the magma pushes through cracks
in the crust. When magma comes to the surface, it
is called lava. The lava cools and becomes very
hard. It becomes igneous rock.
There is lots of information in this text and no
topic sentence to help organize the thoughts.
With the help of students, the teacher might
construct a time line while thinking through text.
Magma is Magma pushes Magma comes Lava
cools melted rock through cracks to surface and
becomes inside earth igneous rock
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Granite is an igneous rock. It once was magma.
Some granite is gray with small, shiny black and
white crystals. Some granite has large pink,
black, and white crystals. The crystals in
granite are called quartz. Some pieces of quartz
are white like milk. Others are clear like
glass. Sometimes quartz has bands of many
colors. Jewelry is made from it. The marbles you
play with may be made of banded quartz. Basalt
is another kind of igneous rock. It is usually
dark in color gray, green, or black. It is the
most common of all igneous rocks.
There is lots more information here, and the
teacher may be able to link it by constructing a
chart. Again the students can help. Note that as
the teacher constructs the chart, s/he thinks
through each step aloud. The chart links facts
and the links are examples of inferences.
61
The teacher might say, Lets see if we can put
all of these facts together. I think a little
chart will help. Were reading about kinds of
igneous rocks here. The author mentions three
kinds. Ill write them on the left. They are
granite, quartz, and basalt. On the right, lets
jot down a few of the facts we just read.
62

• Task 3
• Choose a another segment of text in a trade book
  or core selection in which facts that can be
  linked through a think-aloud.
• This time look for a segment you can think
  through as you construct a simple chart or
  diagram.
• Plan how this think-aloud would be worded.
• Prepare to share!

63
Once children begin to catch on to the thinking
process used to make inferences, you can use
questions to prompt them. Lets revisit some of
these examples as the teacher uses questioning
strategies rather than think-alouds.
64
Teacher Questioning Bottom-up Clusters A
teacher can prompt inference-making by asking a
series of three questions. The first two call
for facts that are in the text or in prior
knowledge. The third question calls for an
inference that links the two facts.
INFERENTIAL LITERAL LITERAL
65

• Teacher Questioning
• Bottom-up Clusters
• A teacher can prompt inference-making by asking a
  series of three questions. The first two call
  for facts that are in the text or in prior
  knowledge. The third question calls for an
  inference that links the two facts.
• Start by examining your own reading of the text.
  Find a point at which you reached an inference.
• Plan two questions that students will need to
  answer to make the inference.
• Plan how to word the inferential question.
• Lead the students through the cluster when you
  come to the appropriate point in the text.

66
Hurricane season along the East Coast of the
United States begins in June and continues until
the end of November. The peak hurricane months
are August and September. The East Coast averages
about five hurricanes a year. Over other parts of
the world, hurricanes happen year-round.
In this example, the teacher leads a child in
combining a fact in prior knowledge with a fact
in the text to infer a new fact. Youll recall
that another way to do this was through a
think-aloud.
67
Hurricane season along the East Coast of the
United States begins in June and continues until
the end of November. The peak hurricane months
are August and September. The East Coast averages
about five hurricanes a year. Over other parts of
the world, hurricanes happen year-round.

Teacher After reading the first sentence
aloud Look at our map. Here is the East
Coast. Would you say that Georgia is on the
East Coast? Child Yes.
The answer to this question is not in the text.
The teacher wants to ensure that the students
have it available.
68
Hurricane season along the East Coast of the
United States begins in June and continues until
the end of November. The peak hurricane months
are August and September. The East Coast averages
about five hurricanes a year. Over other parts of
the world, hurricanes happen year-round.
Teacher After reading the first sentence
aloud Look at our map. Here is the East
Coast. Would you say that Georgia is on the
East Coast? Child Yes. Teacher And when is
hurricane season? Child From June to November.
This answer to this question is in the text. The
child is now ready to make the inference.

69
Hurricane season along the East Coast of the
United States begins in June and continues until
the end of November. The peak hurricane months
are August and September. The East Coast averages
about five hurricanes a year. Over other parts of
the world, hurricanes happen year-round.
Teacher After reading the first sentence
aloud Look at our map. Here is the East
Coast. Would you say that Georgia is on the
East Coast? Child Yes. Teacher And when is
hurricane season? Child From June to
November. Teacher Right. Do you think a
hurricane might hit Georgia in the
spring? Child No.
The inference is now easy to make because the
facts the child needs have entered the discussion.

70
Now lets revisit our blue whale example, in
which both of the facts needed for the inference
are in the text. Instead of using a think-aloud,
a teacher might use a question cluster.
71
The blue whale is as long as a basketball court.
Its eyes are as big as softballs. Its tongue
weighs as much as an elephant. It is the biggest
animal that has ever lived on earth bigger than
any dinosaur.
72
The blue whale is as long as a basketball court.
Its eyes are as big as softballs. Its tongue
weighs as much as an elephant. It is the biggest
animal that has ever lived on earth bigger than
any dinosaur.

Teacher How long is a blue whale? Child As
long as a basketball court. Teacher Are blue
whales bigger than dinosaurs? Child Yes.
The teacher begins with two literal questions.
73
The blue whale is as long as a basketball court.
Its eyes are as big as softballs. Its tongue
weighs as much as an elephant. It is the biggest
animal that has ever lived on earth bigger than
any dinosaur.

Teacher How long is a blue whale? Child As
long as a basketball court. Teacher Are blue
whales bigger dinosaurs? Child Yes. Teacher So,
was there was ever a dinosaur as long as a
basketball court? Child No.
The teacher begins with two literal
questions. Then comes the inference.

74

• Task 4
• Return to the segment of text you chose for the
  first think-aloud.
• Plan how this segment might be approached through
  a bottom-up question cluster. (Remember to
  include three questions  two literal to focus on
  the facts the child will need, followed by the
  inferential question itself.)
• Prepare to share!

75
Teacher Questioning Top-down Clusters As
students become familiar with making inferences,
a teacher should get into the habit of asking
inferential questions without the literal set-up
questions. If a student cannot provide a
reasonable answer, the teacher prompts by asking
follow-up questions that are the basis of the
inference. When these key facts have been
injected into the discussion, the teacher
returns to the original inferential question.
INFERENTIAL INFERENTIAL LITERAL
LITERAL
76

• Teacher Questioning
• Top-down Clusters
• This process is the reverse of the bottom-up
  cluster. In a top-down cluster, the teacher makes
  the hopeful assumption that students will
  successfully infer without having to be prompted.
• Examine your core selection (or trade book) for a
  point at which you can ask an inferential
  question. The core TE may very well suggest such
  questions.
• Decide on a literal question or two to ask if the
  child you call on cannot make the inference.
• Ask these questions if the need arises and then
  return to the original inferential question.

77
Lets revisit the whale example yet again. What
if the teacher had started with the inferential
question?
78
The blue whale is as long as a basketball court.
Its eyes are as big as softballs. Its tongue
weighs as much as an elephant. It is the biggest
animal that has ever lived on earth bigger than
any dinosaur.
Teacher Was there was ever a dinosaur as
long as a basketball court? Child I think so.
79
The blue whale is as long as a basketball court.
Its eyes are as big as softballs. Its tongue
weighs as much as an elephant. It is the biggest
animal that has ever lived on earth bigger than
any dinosaur.
The teacher begins with an inferential question,
but the answer is wrong.

Teacher Was there was ever a dinosaur as
long as a basketball court? Child I think so.
80
The blue whale is as long as a basketball court.
Its eyes are as big as softballs. Its tongue
weighs as much as an elephant. It is the biggest
animal that has ever lived on earth bigger than
any dinosaur.
Teacher Was there was ever a dinosaur as
long as a basketball court? Child I think
so. Teacher Well, how long is a blue
whale? Child As long as a basketball
court. Teacher Are blue whales as big as
dinosaurs? Child Theyre bigger.
The teacher drops to the literal level. These two
facts are needed for the inference

81
The blue whale is as long as a basketball court.
Its eyes are as big as softballs. Its tongue
weighs as much as an elephant. It is the biggest
animal that has ever lived on earth bigger than
any dinosaur.
Teacher Was there was ever a dinosaur as
long as a basketball court? Child I think
so. Teacher Well, how long is a blue
whale? Child As long as a basketball
court. Teacher Are blue whales as big as
dinosaurs? Child Theyre bigger. Teacher So,
could a dinosaur have been as long as a
basketball court? Child No, I guess not.
The teacher returns to the original inferential
question, with better success.

82
McKenna (2002) provides a good discussion of
Question Clusters and how they can be used to
build inferential thinking.
83
What have we learned?

• Take ten minutes to process this information.
• Try to use these terms as you discuss
• automatic
• modeling
• prompt
• core
• supplement

84
Lets review

• Using facts to make inferences is not an
  automatic process. Not all children will actively
  infer or even realize that doing so is a part
  of good reading.
• Teachers can encourage children to infer by
  modeling the process through think-alouds.
• Once children are familiar with inferential
  thinking, teachers can use question clusters to
  prompt children to make inferences.
• Teachers should stress think-alouds and
  inferential questions suggested by the core TE.
• Teachers may also supplement core discussions by
  adding think-alouds and question clusters at
  appropriate points.

85
Student-Generated Questions

• The NRP found that instruction in which students
  pose questions is effective in improving
  comprehension proficiency.
• This finding is not surprising since good readers
  often ask themselves questions as they read, in a
  kind of internal dialogue.

How can teachers use student-generated questions
to foster inferential comprehension?
86

• Teaching Students to Generate Questions
• Begin with Raphaels Question-Answer
  Relationships (QARs). Students must realize that
  not all questions require the same type of
  thinking. They must also realize that the answers
  to comprehension questions are not always
  explicitly stated in the text.
• Focus on Think-and-Search questions. These
  require the reader to combine explicitly stated
  facts.
• Focus on Author-and-You questions. These
  require the reader to combine explicit facts with
  prior knowledge.

Raphael based QARs on the idea that there are two
kinds of inferences.
87
Think and Search QAR (Both facts are in the
text.)
88
Author and You QAR (Facts in the text plus
facts in prior knowledge)
89
Raphael and Au (2005) provide a good discussion
of Question-Answer Relationships and how they can
be used to build inferential thinking.
90

• Teaching Students to Generate Questions
• Begin with Raphaels Question-Answer
  Relationships (QARs). Students must realize that
  not all questions require the same type of
  thinking. They must also realize that the answers
  to comprehension questions are not always
  explicitly stated in the text.
• Focus on Think-and-Search questions. These
  require the reader to combine explicitly stated
  facts.
• Focus on Author-and-You questions. These
  require the reader to combine explicit facts with
  prior knowledge.
• Move on to Reciprocal Questioning (ReQuest),
  focusing on these two question types.

91
Reciprocal Questioning (ReQuest) Reciprocal
Questioning (ReQuest) is a research-based
approach that led to the creation of Reciprocal
Teaching. It reverses the traditional roles of
the teacher (who asks the questions) and the
student (who answers them). In ReQuest, the kids
ask the questions as though they were the
teacher. The idea is simple In order to ask a
good comprehension question you must actually
comprehend the selection yourself! In addition,
ReQuest encourages students to self-question,
which is a habit of proficient readers. Through
the years many variations of Tony Manzos
technique (originally used in tutoring) have been
developed for classroom settings. ReQuest is easy
to implement. Lets look at some ways.
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Variations of ReQuest

• One student asks the teacher as many questions as
  s/he can think of.
• Teacher calls on students at random. Student
  asks teacher a question, teacher asks student a
  question, then calls on another student.
• Teacher reflects each students question to
  another student.
• Students call on other students to answer until
  everyone has had a turn answering and asking a
  question.
• Students first become familiar with Raphaels
  QARs. They then ask particular types of questions
  during a ReQuest session.

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Take Five

• Which variations of ReQuest would be appropriate
  at K, 1, 2, and 3?

94

• Teaching Students to Generate Questions
• Begin with Raphaels Question-Answer
  Relationships (QARs). Students must realize that
  not all questions require the same type of
  thinking. They must also realize that the answers
  to comprehension questions are not always
  explicitly stated in the text.
• Focus on Think-and-Search questions. These
  require the reader to combine explicitly stated
  facts.
• Focus on Author-and-You questions. These
  require the reader to combine explicit facts with
  prior knowledge.
• Move on to Reciprocal Questioning (ReQuest),
  focusing on these two question types.
• For students with adequate fluency, move to
  Reciprocal Teaching. This approach has a
  student-generated questioning component based on
  ReQuest.

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Coachs Corner

• The approaches we have reviewed today are
  summarized in a quick reference sheet, on which
  youve been making notes.
• Review the list to make sure you are comfortable
  with each approach.
• What questions do you have?

96
Back at School

• Work with teachers at one grade level as they
  plan to apply one or more of these approaches to
  trade books and/or core selections.
• Follow up with individual teachers to see how it
  went.
• Make plans for the other three grades.

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References

• Almasi, J.F. (2003). Teaching strategic processes
  in reading. New York Guilford.
• Baumann, J.F. (1986). The direct instruction of
  main idea comprehension ability. In J.F. Baumann
  (Ed.), Teaching main idea comprehension (pp.
  133-178). Newark, DE IRA.
• McKenna, M.C. (2002). Help for struggling
  readers. New York Guilford Press.
• Menke, D.J., Pressley, M. (1994). Elaborative
  interrogation Using why questions to enhance
  the learning from text. Journal of Reading, 37,
  642-645.
• Paris, S.G., Wasik, B.A., Turner, J.C. (1991).
  The development of strategic readers. In R. Barr,
  M.L. Kamil, P. Mosenthal, P.D. Pearson (Eds.),
  Handbook of reading research (vol. 2, pp.
  609-640). New York Longman.
• Pearson, P.D., Johnson, D.D. (1978). Teaching
  reading comprehension. New York Holt, Rinehart,
  and Winston.
• Raphael, T.E., Au, K.H. (2005). QAR Enhancing
  comprehension and test taking across grades and
  content areas. The Reading Teacher, 59, 206-221.
• Willingham, D.T. (2006-07). The usefulness of
  brief instruction in reading comprehension
  strategies. American Educator, Winter, 39-45, 50.
• Winograd, P.N., Bridge, C.A. (1986). The
  comprehension of important information in written
  prose. In J.F. Baumann (Ed.), Teaching main idea
  comprehension (pp. 18-48). Newark, DE IRA.