COM704C Research Methods

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COM704CResearch Methods

• Participant Observation
• Basic Principles

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Observation Methods

• Observation is a research method in which the
  investigator systematically watches, listens to
  and records the phenomenon/phenomena of interest

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Observation in Enquiry Purposes

• Can be used for a variety of purposes
• in an exploratory phase
• as a supportive or supplementary technique to
  data obtained through other means
• in experimental research
• in survey research (quite rare)

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Observations Benefits

• Involves actual, not self-reported, behaviour
• Does not rely on memory or willingness to reply
• Real-time research - at time of occurrence
• Can include factors people take for granted

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Observations Limitations/1

• Cannot infer what caused behaviour
• Can be time-consuming and expensive
• Threats to reliability and validity
• Observer bias
• Reactive effects of observers presence
• Impossible to observe large samples of units of
  study (people/organisations)

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Limitations/2

• Argued that participant observation is
• subjective
• biased
• impressionistic
• lacks any quantifiable measures (eg, as opposed
  to surveys and experiments)

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Ethnography - Definition

• As a process, ethnography involves prolonged
  observation of the group, typically through
  participant observation in which the researcher
  is immersed in the day-to-day lives of the people
  or through one-on-one interviews with members of
  the group. The researcher studies the meanings
  of behaviour, language, and interactions of the
  culture-sharing group.

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Ethnography

• Qualitative (participant) observations frequently
  referred to as ethnography
• Ethnography derives from anthropology and adheres
  to philosophy of phenomenology
• It involves a triangulated approach to research,
  eg, using other approaches (interviews and
  records) to validate the observations

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Ethnography

• Main data collection techniques
• participant observation
• non-participation
• ethnographic interviewing

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Participant Observation

• Observer does not just observe and record
  behaviour (interpreting and explaining), but
  joins in everyday activities of the subjects
• It is undertaken and used
• for analysing patterns of interaction and
• as basis for analysing nature of social structures

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Participant Observation

• Sets out to do two things
• allow researcher to see world of subjects in its
  natural setting
• allow researcher some insights into how subjects
  view their world
• allow researcher to gain an understanding of these

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Participant Observer Roles

• Complete participant
• Participant as observer
• Observer as participant
• Complete observer
• Gold, 1969

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Complete Participant

• Researcher attempts to engage fully in activities
  of the group/organisation under investigation
• Role is covert - intentions are not made explicit
  (ethical issue)
• Advantage - produces more accurate information
  and an understanding not available by other means

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Participant as Observer

• Overt role - intentions made clear
• Observations through participating, plus
• Observer can ask members to explain aspects of
  what is going on
• Trust of key members is important
• But, dual role of participant and observer may be
  difficult to maintain

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Observer as ParticipantComplete Observer

• Observer as Participant
• Status as researcher is known
• Often used in studies involving one-visit
  interviews
• Complete Observer
• Role as researcher is not made explicit
• Non-participant role
• Role completely removes researcher from observed
  interactions (eg laboratory experiment)

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Which Role? Determining Factors

• Purpose of research
• Time available for research
• Degree to which you feel suited to participant
  observation
• Organisational access
• Ethical considerations

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Data Collection

• Descriptive observations
• Spradley (1980) identifies nine dimensions on
  which descriptive data may be collected
• Focused observations
• Selective observations

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Spreadley - Descriptive Data

• Space
• Actors
• Activities
• Objects

• Acts
• Events
• Time
• Goals
• Feelings

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Analysis of Observations

• Selection and definition of problems, concepts
  and indices
• Observed phenomena placed within a theoretical
  framework for further investigation
• Check frequency and distribution of phenomena
• Construction of social systems model
• Becker, 1979