Chapter 10 Measurement and Attitude Scaling

1
Chapter 10Measurement and Attitude Scaling
2
LEARNING OUTCOMES
After studying this chapter, you should be able to

• Explain what needs to be measured to address a
  research question or hypothesis
• Define operationalization
• Distinguish levels of scale measurement
• Explain the need for index or composite measures
• List the three criteria for good measurement
• Explain the significance of scale reliability and
  validity
• Describe how marketing researchers think of
  attitudes

3
LEARNING OUTCOMES (contd)
After studying this chapter, you should be able to

• Identify basic approaches to measuring attitudes
• Discuss the use of rating scales for measuring
  attitudes
• Represent a latent construct by constructing a
  summated scale
• Summarize ways to measure attitudes with ranking
  and sorting techniques

4
What Do I Measure

• Measurement
• The process of describing some property of a
  phenomenon of interest, usually by assigning
  numbers in a reliable and valid way.
• Concept
• A generalized idea about a class of objects,
  attributes, occurrences, or processes
• Operational Definition
• Specifies what the researcher must do to measure
  the concept under investigation

5
EXHIBIT 10.1 Are There Any Validity Issues with
this Measurement?
6
Operational Definitions

• Operationalization
• The process of identifying scales that correspond
  to variance in a concept to be involved in a
  research process.
• Scales
• A device providing a range of values that
  correspond to different values in a concept being
  measured.
• Correspondence rules
• Indicate the way that a certain value on a scale
  corresponds to some true value of a concept.

7
Operational Definitions (contd)

• Variable
• Anything that varies or changes from one instance
  to another can exhibit differences in value,
  usually in magnitude or strength, or in
  direction.
• Constructs
• Concepts measured with multiple variables.

8
EXHIBIT 10.2 Media Skepticism An Operational
Definition
9
Levels of Scale Measurement

• Scale
• A series of items arranged along a continuous
  spectrum of values for the purpose of
  quantification.
• Properties uniquely classify, preserve order,
  set equal intervals, and have a natural zero.
• Types of Scales
• Nominal classifies/identifies by a quality of
  the object
• Ordinal classifies using a ranking order of
  objects
• Interval quantifies objects in order on a
  continuum
• Ratio classifies by comparison to a standard
• Categorical classifies by a specific
  characteristic

10
EXHIBIT 10.3 Nominal, Ordinal, Interval, and
Ratio Scales Provide Different Information
11
EXHIBIT 10.4 Facts About the Four Levels of Scales
12
EXHIBIT 10.4 Facts About the Four Levels of
Scales (contd)
13
Index Measures

• Attributes
• Single characteristics or fundamental features
  that pertain to an object, person, or issue.
• Index Measures
• Assign a value based on how much of the concept
  being measured is associated with an observation.
• Indexes often are formed by putting several
  variables together.
• Composite Measures
• Assign a value to an observation based on a
  mathematical derivation of multiple variables.

14
Three Criteria for Good Measurement
Reliability
Validity
Good Measurement
Sensitivity
15
Reliability versus Validity

• Reliability
• The degree to which measures are free from random
  error and therefore yield consistent results.
• An indicator of a measures internal consistency.
• Validity
• The accuracy of a measure or the extent to which
  a score truthfully represents a concept.
• Does a scale to measure what was intended to be
  measured?

16
EXHIBIT 10.5 Reliability and Validity on Target
17
Measurement Accuracy Sensitivity

• Sensitivity
• A measurement instruments ability to accurately
  measure variability in stimuli or responses.
• Composite measures allow for a greater range of
  possible scores, they are more sensitive than
  single-item scales.
• Sensitivity is generally increased by adding more
  response points or adding scale items.

18
Attitudes in Marketing Research

• Attitude
• An enduring disposition to consistently respond
  in a given to various aspects of the world.
• Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs
• Hypothetical construct describes a latent or
  unobservable variable that is measurable only by
  an indirect means such as verbal expression or
  overt behaviorattitudes are considered to be
  such variables.

19
Components of an Attitude
Affective
Cognitive
Attitude
Behavioral
20
Components of an Attitude

• Affective Component
• The feelings or emotions toward an object
• Cognitive Component
• Knowledge and beliefs about an object
• Behavioral Component
• Predisposition to action
• Intentions
• Behavioral expectations

21
Techniques for Measuring Attitudes
Measuring Attitudes
22
Attitude Measuring Processes

• Ranking
• Requiring the respondent to rank order objects in
  overall performance on the basis of a
  characteristic or stimulus.
• Rating
• Asking the respondent to estimate the magnitude
  of a characteristic, or quality, that an object
  possesses by indicating on a scale where he or
  she would rate an object.

23
Attitude Measuring Processes

• Sorting
• Presenting the respondent with several concepts
  typed on cards and requiring the respondent to
  arrange the cards into a number of piles or
  otherwise classify the concepts.
• Choice
• Asking a respondent to choose one alternative
  from among several alternatives it is assumed
  that the chosen alternative is preferred over the
  others.

24
Attitude Rating Scales

• Simple Attitude Scale
• Requires that an individual agree/disagree with a
  statement or respond to a single question.
• This type of self-rating scale classifies
  respondents into one of two categories (e.g. yes
  or no).
• Example

THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION _______
AGREE ______ DISAGREE
25
Attitude Rating Scales (contd)

• Category Scale
• A more sensitive measure than a simple scale in
  that it can have more than two response
  categories.
• Question construction is an extremely important
  factor in increasing the usefulness of these
  scales.
• Example

How important were the following in your decision
to visit San Diego? (check one for each
item) VERY SOMEWHAT NOT TOO IMPORTANT IMPORTANT
IMPORTANT CLIMATE ___________ ___________ ________
___ COST OF TRAVEL ___________ ___________ _______
____ FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ ___________ _____
______ EDUCATIONAL/HISTORICAL ASPECTS ___________
___________ ___________ FAMILIARITY WITH
AREA ___________ ___________ ___________
26
EXHIBIT 10.6 Selected Category Scales
27
Attitude Rating Scales (contd)

• Method for Summated Ratings Likert Scale
• A popular means for measuring attitudes.
• Respondents indicate their own attitudes by
  checking how strongly they agree or disagree with
  statements.
• Typical response alternatives strongly agree,
  agree, uncertain, disagree, and strongly
  disagree.
• ExampleIt is more fun to play a tough,
  competitive tennis match than to play an easy
  one.
• ___Strongly Agree ___Agree ___Not Sure
  ___Disagree ___Strongly Disagree

28
EXHIBIT 10.7 Likert Scale Items for Measuring
Attitudes toward Patients Interaction with a
Physicians Service Staff
Source Stephen W. Brown and Teresa A. Swarts, A
Gap Analysis of Professional Service Quality,
Journal of Marketing, April 1989, p. 95.
29
Attitude Rating Scales Techniques

• Reverse Recoding
• A method of making sure all the items forming a
  composite scale are scored in the same direction.
• Negative items can be recoded into the equivalent
  responses for a non-reverse coded item.

30
Attitude Rating Scales Techniques

• Composite Scale
• A way of representing a latent construct by
  summing or averaging respondents reactions to
  multiple items each assumed to indicate the
  latent construct.
• Item Analysis
• Ensures that final items evoke a wide response
  and discriminate among those subjects with
  positive and negative attitudes.
• Only a set of items showing good reliability and
  validity should be summed or averaged to form a
  composite scale representing a hypothetical
  construct.

31
Attitude Rating Scales (contd)

• Semantic Differential
• A series of seven-point rating scales with
  bipolar adjectives, such as good and bad,
  anchoring the ends (or poles) of the scale.
• A weight is assigned to each position on the
  scale. Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3,
  2, 1, or 3, 2, 1, 0, -1, -2, -3.
• Example

Exciting ___ ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
___ Calm Interesting ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
___ ___ Dull Simple ___ ___ ___ ___
___ ___ ___ Complex Passive ___ ___ ___
___ ___ ___ ___ Active
32
EXHIBIT 10.8 Semantic Differential Scales for
Measuring Attitudes toward Supermarkets
Source Julie H. Yu, Gerald Albaum, and Michael
Swenson, Is a Central Tendency Error Inherent in
the Use of Semantic Differential Scales in
Different Cultures? International Journal of
Market Research, Summer 2003, downloaded from
Business Company Resource Center,
http//galenet.galegroup.com.
33
Attitude Rating Scales (contd)

• Image Profile
• A graphic representation of semantic differential
  data for competing brands, products, or stores to
  highlight comparisons.
• Because the data are assumed to be interval,
  either the arithmetic mean or the median will be
  used to compare the profile of one product,
  brand, or store with that of a competing product,
  brand, or store.

34
EXHIBIT 10.9 Image Profile of Commuter Airlines
versus Major Airlines
Source J. Richard Jones and Sheila I. Cocke, A
Performance Evaluation of Commuter Airlines The
Passengers View, Proceedings Transportation
Research Forum 22 (1981), p. 524. Reprinted with
permission.
35
Attitude Rating Scales (contd)

• Numerical Scales
• Scales that have numbers as response options,
  rather than semantic space or verbal
  descriptions, to identify categories (response
  positions).
• In practice, researchers have found that a scale
  with numerical labels for intermediate points on
  the scale is as effective a measure as the true
  semantic differential.
• Example
• Now that youve had your automobile for about one
  year, please tell us how satisfied you are with
  your Ford Taurus.Extremely Dissatisfied 1 2 3
  4 5 6 7 Extremely Satisfied

36
Attitude Rating Scales (contd)

• Stapel Scale
• Uses a single adjective as a substitute for the
  semantic differential when it is difficult to
  create pairs of bipolar adjectives.
• Tends to be easier to conduct and administer than
  a semantic differential scale.
• Example
• Measuring a Stores Image Store Name 3
  2 1 -1 -2 -3Based on the
  strength of your belief, select a minus number if
  you disagree with the adjective, or select a
  positive number if you agree with the adjective.

37
EXHIBIT 10.10 A Stapel Scale for Measuring a
Stores Image
Source Dennis Menezes and Norbert F. Elbert,
Alternative Semantic Scaling Formats for
Measuring Store Image An Evaluation, Journal of
Marketing Research, February 1979, pp. 8087.
Reprinted by permission of the American Marketing
Association.
38
Attitude Rating Scales (contd)

• Constant-sum Scale
• Respondents are asked to divide a constant sum to
  indicate the relative importance of attributes
• Respondents often sort cards, but the task may
  also be a rating task (e.g., indicating brand
  preference).
• Example
• Divide 100 points among each of the following
  brands according to your preference for the
  brand
• Brand A _________
• Brand B _________
• Brand C _________

39
Attitude Rating Scales (contd)

• Graphic Rating Scale
• A measure of attitude that allows respondents to
  rate an object by choosing any point along a
  graphic continuum.
• Advantage allows the researcher to choose any
  interval desired for scoring purposes.
• Disadvantage there are no standard answers.
• Thurstone Scale
• Judges assign scale values to attitudinal
  statements and subjects are asked to respond to
  these statements.

40
EXHIBIT 10.11 Graphic Rating Scale
41
EXHIBIT 10.12 A Ladder Scale
42
EXHIBIT 10.13 Graphic Rating Scale with Picture
Response Categories Stressing Visual Communication
43
EXHIBIT 10.14 Summary of Advantages and
Disadvantages of Rating Scales
44
Measuring Behavioral Intention

• Behavioral Component
• The behavioral expectations (expected future
  actions) of an individual toward an attitudinal
  object.
• Buying intention the behavioral tendency to seek
  additional information, or plans to visit a
  showroom.
• Example
• How likely is it that you will purchase an mp3
  player?
• I definitely will buy
• I probably will buy
• I might buy
• I probably will not buy
• I definitely will not buy

45
Measuring Behavioral Intention (contd)

• Behavioral Differential
• Measures the behavioral intentions of subjects
  towards any object or category of objects.
• A description of the object to be judged is
  placed on the top of a sheet, and the subjects
  indicate their behavioral intentions toward this
  object on a series of scales.
• Example A 25 year-old woman sales
  representativeWould ___ ___ ___ ___ ___
  ___ ___ Would Not
  ask this person for advice.

46
Ranking

• Paired Comparison
• A measurement technique that involves presenting
  the respondent with two objects and asking the
  respondent to pick the preferred object more
  than two objects may be presented, but
  comparisons are made in pairs.
• ExampleI would like to know your overall
  opinion of two brands of adhesive bandages. They
  are MedBand and Super-Aid. Overall, which of
  these two brandsMedBand or Super-Aiddo you
  think is the better one? Or are both the same?
• MedBand is better _____
• Super-Aid is better _____
• They are the same _____

47
Sorting

• Sorting Tasks
• Require that respondents indicate their attitudes
  or beliefs by arranging items on the basis of
  perceived similarity or some other attribute.
• Example
• Here is a sheet that lists several airlines. Next
  to the name of each airline is a pocket. Here are
  ten cards. I would like you to put these cards in
  the pockets next to the airlines you would prefer
  to fly on your next trip. Assume that all of the
  airlines fly to wherever you would choose to
  travel. You can put as many cards as you want
  next to an airline, or you can put no cards next
  to an airline.
• Cards
• American Airlines _____
• Delta Airlines _____
• United Airlines _____
• Southwest Airlines _____
• Northwest Airlines _____

48
Key Terms and Concepts

• Measurement
• Concept
• Operationalization
• Scales
• Correspondence rules
• Construct
• Nominal scales
• Ordinal scales
• Interval scales
• Ratio scales
• Attribute
• Index measure

• Composite measures
• Reliability
• Validity
• Sensitivity
• Attitude
• Hypothetical construct
• Ranking
• Rating
• Sorting
• Choice
• Category scale
• Likert scale

49
Key Terms and Concepts (contd)

• Reverse recoding
• Composite scale
• Semantic differential
• Image profile
• Numerical scale
• Stapel scale
• Constant-sum scale
• Graphic rating scale
• Behavioral differential
• Paired comparison